FIRST BOOK 



: tfX- 



FINE AND USEFUL ARTS, 



FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND LYCEUMS. 



'compiled by 

I 

MARSHALL S. PERRY, M.D. 




BOSTON : 
CARTER AND HENDEE 



MDCCCXXXII. 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1832, by Carter & Hendee, 
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. 



/ 1 $■£ 



Y 



b 



Carter, Andrews, & Co. Printers^ Lancaster, 







PREFACE. 

The present volume is offered to the public, 
under the impression that a work of the kind 
is wanted. It is intended to combine in itself 
perspicuity and cheapness ; and to contain the 
leading facts in relation to those arts which 
adorn human life, and which contribute to the 
comfort and happiness of mankind. The facts 
presented have been carefully selected from 
recent approved wc^ks, or have been obtained 
from practical artists. They have been con- 
densed as much as possible, in order that they 
may come within the pecuniary reach of all. 
Questions have been placed at the end of each 
article, under the impression that they will 
assist in directing the attention of the student 
to the most important facts. 

With this brief exposition, the compiler would 
submit the work to the public, begging their 
indulgence for those errors that may have been 
inadvertently committed. 



CONTENTS 



Printing 










Page 
1 


Painting 










22 


Sculpture 










39 


Engraving . 










46 


Lithography- 










52 


Architecture 










62 


Heating and Ventilating 










74 


Manufacture of Glass 










85 


Pottery 










90 


Dyeing 










94 


Tanning 










102 


Manufacture of Fibrous Materials 








105 


Reduction of Metals 










112 



EPITOME OF THE ARTS 



PRINTING. 

Prior to the important discovery of the art of 
printing, men employed various means by which to 
record their thoughts, their desires, and their discove- 
ries in any useful art. Before the invention of letters, 
there were two modes of writing which are generally 
allowed to have prevailed: the writing or represen- 
tation of thoughts, by figures suggesting the ideas in- 
tended to be ^conveyed, and the writing of sounds by 
means of certain characters. The kind of writing 
by figures or pictures is termed hieroglyphics. The 
earliest hieroglyphics were mere pictures, or the 
images of things intended to be represented. The 
most ancient specimens of this kind of writing now ex- 
tant are those of the Mexicans ; the Mexicans wrote 
their laws and history, and communicated their ideas 
to one another, by pictures. The hieroglyphics of 
the Egyptians were an improvement upon this rude 
and inconvenient plan : they abridged the characters, 
and by this means that which among the Mexicans 
would be a simple outline of a whole object, would 
among the Egyptians be only a drawing of some pro- 
2 



PRINTING. 



minent part of that object, which should suggest the 
whole. Their manner of contracting was by putting 
an instrument of a thing for the thing itself: thus an 
eye, eminently placed, was designed to represent God's 
omniscience ; an eye and sceptre denoted a monarch ; 
a ship and pilot the governor of the universe ; a judge 
was represented by a man without hands, holding 
down his head, to intimate the duty of being unmoved 
by pity or interest. 

The ancients used to engrave these figures on stone, 
brass, wood, and brick. The monuments of the Chal- 
deans and the obelisks of the Egyptians afford us 
abundant proof of this ; they likewise used lead on 
which to preserve their public documents : Job greatly 
desired that his words might be engraven on lead, or 
on a rock. The Egyptians, Chaldeans, Samaritans, 
and Phoenicians, are the only nations which have claim- 
ed the honour of the invention of letters. 

It is now the generally received opinion that the 
Phoenicians were the original inventors of letters and 
alphabetical writing ; and that Cadmus, a Phoenician, 
who settled at Basotia, B. C. 1500, first communicated 
them to the Greeks. The Greek letters had originally 
a perfect resemblance to those of the Phoenicians ; and 
they still present many similar features, which are 
sufficient to indicate their origin. 

After the invention of letters, the same articles were 
used on which to engrave them as were used for figures. 

The works of Hesiod are said to have been inscribed 
on leaden tables. Solon is said to have inscribed his 
laws concerning sacrifices on stone, and those that 



PRINTING. 



related to civil affairs on wood. Table-books, made 
of small pieces of wood, were in use before the time 
of Homer. 

The Romans made use of brass to preserve their 
public memorials. The laws of the Twelve Tables 
among the Romans, according to some, were written 
on oaken planks ; but it is made almost certain that 
they were engraved on brass, and were destroyed by 
fire in the reign of Vespasian, when the Capitol was 
consumed. The ancient Britons made use of wood 
for the purpose of recording their ideas. Writing on 
leaves, especially the leaf of the palm-tree, was prac- 
tised by several ancient nations ; and this is used at 
the present day in some of the eastern countries. The 
bark of trees has been used as a material for writing 
upon by almost every nation and in almost every age. 
Some of the sacred books of the Birmans are com- 
posed of thin strips of the bamboo. Linen was used 
by the Romans and ancient Egyptians on which to 
inscribe such things as they were desirous of preserv- 
ing for a long time, such as the names of magistrates, 
treaties and all public documents, the private letters 
of emperors, he. 

Parchment and vellum, which are made of the skins 
of sheep and goats, were used by the ancients, and are 
still used for public and important documents ; vel- 
lum is a finer kind of parchment. Eumenes, king of 
Pergamus, is supposed by some to have first used 
parchment ; but it is generally believed that he only 
improved it and made more common its use, on account 
of his being deprived of the use of the papyrus, or 



4 PRINTING. 

Egyptian paper, from a dispute that arose between 
him and one of the Ptolemies. 

PAPER. 

The most ancient kind of paper was that made from 
the inner films of the papyrus, a species of rush growing 
on the banks of the Nile, which therefore received the 
name of Egyptian paper. Paper was also made from 
the bark of trees ; but this was thicker than the papy- 
rus, broke more easily, and was not held in so high 
estimation. The Chinese make their paper from the 
bark of the bamboo and other trees ; the invention in 
China is said to have been about fifty years after the 
birth of Christ. Asbestos, a mineral production, which 
possesses the remarkable property of resisting the ac- 
tion of fire, has been manufactured into paper. 

The art of making paper of cotton was discovered 
by the Arabs in the latter part of the ninth or at the 
beginning of the tenth century. This discovery was 
fortunately made at a time when it was a custom to 
obliterate the writings of authors, many of which were 
valuable, for the sake of the parchment, that being 
exceedingly scarce. The exact time when paper from 
linen rags was first made is not known ; but it is be- 
lieved to have been about the year 1308. The ma- 
nufacture of coarse wrapping paper was introduced 
into England in 1588, and writing paper in 1690. 

The rags to be used for making paper are reduced 
to a pulp by tearing, grinding, &c-., then moulded 
into sheets of various dimensions ; these sheets are- 
then sized, dried, and folded into quires and reams. 



PRINTING. 5 

Paper from linen rags is now manufactured in Europe, 
America, and in every other part of the world to which 
Europeans have emigrated. 

WRITING INK, 

The use of ink was known among the ancients, and 
is mentioned by Pliny, Cicero, Vitruvius, and Horace. 
Nut galls, vitriol, and gum, are the principal ingredi- 
ents of modern ink ; while lamp-black, or the black 
obtained from burnt ivory, formed the basis of that 
used by the ancients. Red ink was obtained from 
carmine. Blue, yellow, and green colours, were ob- 
tained from pulverized gold and silver sulphuretted, 
and submitted to the action of fire. These colours 
were principally used for ornamenting manuscripts. 

INSTRUMENTS USED FOR WRITING 

Have ever varied according to the material to be writ- 
ten upon. For tablets, styles, or pens of gold, silver, 
copper, or some other hard substance, were used. 
These styles were pointed at one end, and blunt at the 
other, thereby answering the double purpose of in- 
scribing and erasing. For paper and parchment, a 
species of reed, cut in the manner of our modern pens, 
was used. The time when quills were first employed 
is not certain : it is most probable that from the fifth 
to the tenth century both reeds and quills were in 
use ; but since that time quills have been used almost 
exclusively. 



PRINTING, 



ORIGIN OF PRINTING. 

Three cities, Haerlem, Strasburg, and Mentz, elainEf 
the honour of having given birth to the art of printing, 
M. Meerman says that Laurentius, who was also called 
Coster, of Haerlem, was the inventor of the art ; and 
that he made his first attempt at printing with wooden 
types, in 1430. Home, in his Bibliography says, that 
this opinion rests entirely upon a celebrated fable by 
one Adrian Junius, and that the Dutch writers have 
relied upon this fable as their only authentic document 
in their strenuous efforts to vindicate for Haerlem its 
chimerical claims. He thinks that the city of Mentz 
has the strongest claim to be considered the birthplace 
of the inestimable discovery ; that Gutenberg was the 
inventor; that Schoeffer completed the art, by invent- 
ing punches for striking the matrices ; and that John 
Faust furnished throughout the money necessary for 
the establishment of a printing office. 

The generally received opinion, however, is, that 
Laurentius, or Coster, was the original inventor of the 
art, and that he made the important discovery about 
the year 1429, and that Haerlem was his birth place. 
The circumstances that led to the discovery (as re- 
lated by Junius) are these ; " Laurentius went to walk 
in a wood near the city, as was the custom of the opu- 
lent class ; once, when there, he began to cut some 
letters upon the rind of a beech tree, which for fancy's 
sake he afterwards set and arranged in order, and put 
the words upon paper with their heels up, and so im- 
pressed and printed on paper one or two copies, as 



MINTING. i 

specimens for his grandchildren to follow in writing, 
TMs having happily succeeded, he meditated greater 
things, as he was a man of ingenuity and judgment ; 
and, first of all, he invented, with his son-in-law Tho- 
mas Pieter, a more glutinous ink, because he found 
the common ink would sink and spread. And then he 
formed whole pages of wood, with letters cut upon 
them." Laurentius was a man of fortune, and held 
a lucrative office under government. He commenced 
printing with wooden blocks or plates, on which he 
engraved or carved the words for several small vo- 
lumes. He employed several workmen, among whom 
was John Geinsfleiche. Geinsfleiche communicated 
the art to his younger brother, named Gutenberg, an 
ingenious mechanic, who lived at Strasburg. After 
having stolen a part of his master's apparatus, Geins- 
fleiche went to Mentz, his native place, and com- 
menced printing about the year 1440. He was assisted 
with money at first by John Fust, Faust, or Faustus ; 
and afterwards he entered into partnership with him 
and his brother Gutenberg. 

The two brothers united their endeavours to invent 
a fount of metal types with cut faces ; they succeeded 
after many years, and in 1450 a part of the Bible ap- 
peared from their press. The partnership between the 
brothers and Faust was dissolved in 1455,- Faust con- 
tinued the business, and took one of his servants, Peter 
Schoeffer, into partnership. In 1456, SchoefTer com- 
pleted the invention of metallic types by casting them 
with faces ; he likewise cut matrices for the whole 



8 PRINTING. 

alphabet, with which Faust was so much pleased that 
he gave him his only daughter in marriage. 

The story of the Devil and Dr. Faustus originated 
from the following circumstance. Faust had printed 
a beautiful edition of the Bible, which was an exact 
imitation of the best manuscripts. He took a number 
and went to Paris, where he at first sold them for six and 
then for five hundred crowns each. At last he lowered 
his price to thirty crowns each, and all Paris was per- 
plexed at the number of copies produced, and their 
exact uniformity. They accordingly believed that 
Faust had made a league with the Devil, and he was 
accused of being a magician. 

A knowledge of the art was soon obtained in Rome, 
and the Roman type was introduced in 1467. 

In the reign of Henry the Sixth, R. Tourneur and 
William Caxton went to Haerlem to learn the art. 
These gentlemen persuaded Corsellis, an under work- 
man, to go to England, and a press was set up at Oxford 
in the year 147 1 . The first book printed in the English 
language was the History of Troy, translated from the 
French by William Caxton. Ireland was one of the 
last European countries into which the art of printing 
was introduced : the first work executed there was in 
1551. Printing was practised in Mexico about the 
year 1569. The first printing press in the United 
States was established by Stephen Daye, at Cam- 
bridge, in 1639 ; William Bradford commenced print- 
ing in Philadelphia in 1687. 

The art of printing among the Chinese is of very 



PRINTING. 9 

ancient origin ; but their mode of printing is not like 
ours, although it must be confessed that it bears a 
strong resemblance to it, as first invented by Lauren- 
tius. The manner in which they print is as follows : 
" They write a fair copy of the work which is to be 
printed ; the copy is then given to a carver, who glues 
the leaves on a hard board or plank. He then traces 
with a sharp instrument the strokes of every letter, 
carves them out, and cuts out the intermediate wood, 
so that every letter stands in relief. The dexterity of 
the carver is such, that he carves out every letter ex- 
actly ; therefore the perfection of the work depends 
upon the execution of the writing: if the copy is well 
written, the work will be well executed. The board 
thus covered usually contains the characters for two 
pages. After the carver has completed his task, the 
board is taken to the printer, who confines it in a level 
position ; he then takes two brushes, one quite hard 
and the other soft, and dips the hard one into ink, and 
with it spreads such a quantity over the carved board 
as is sufficient for five or six impressions. After the 
paper is laid on the board, he pushes upon the paper 
with the soft brush, which is of an oblong figure, 
drawing the brush at the same time across it, and thus 
the impression is taken. After this manner one man, 
who is accustomed to the business, is able to take the 
impressions of several thousands in a day."* 

TYPES. 

The types employed for printing are small pieces of 

* Thome's History of Printing. 



10 PPaNTING. 

metal, composed of lead and antimony, and containing 
at one end a letter or figure. They are cast in a 
mould, to which is fitted a piece of copper, which is 
called the matrix, on which the proper character has 
been formed by means of a steel punch, which has the 
letter graven on its end. Each letter has its matrix, 
and there are particular ones for figures, points, rules^ 
&c. A font or fount of letters, is a set or quantity of 
characters of every kind, which are cast by the type 
founders : a complete font contains running letters, 
single letters, commas, points, numerals, fyc. 

The following are the names given to the various 
sizes of types used in printing: 1st, French Canon; 
2d, Two-lines Double Pica; 3d, Two-lines Great Pri- 
mer ; 4th, Two-lines English ; 5th, Two-lines Pica ; 
6th, Double Pica; 7th, Paragon; 8th, Great Primer; 
9th, English; 10th, Pica; 11th, Small Pica ; 12th, 
Long Primer; 13th, Bourgeois; 14th, Brevier; 15th, 
Minion; 16th, Nonpareil; 17th, Pearl; 18th, Dia- 
mond. But the following are the names of those most 
commonly used, with their relative sizes : 

Great Primer, 

English, 
Pica, 

Small Pica, 

Long Primer, 

Brevier, 

Minion, 

Nonpareil. 



PRINTING. 11 

There are two classes of workmen employed in the 
art of printing, viz. 

COMPOSITORS AND PRESSMEN. 

The compositors are those persons whose business 
it is to collect and arrange the letters into lines, para- 
graphs, and pages, which compose a form. The press- 
men, properly speaking, are the printers, for they take 
the impression of the letters after the compositors 
have prepared them for that purpose. The types 
being made by the founder, the compositor distributes 
each kind or sort by itself into small boxes, which are 
contained in an upper and lower case, supported by 
two wooden frames about 4 feet high. The compart- 
ments in the upper case are ninety-eight in number, 
and those in the lower case fifty-four. The upper case 
contains two alphabets, one of LARGE or FULL 
CAPITALS, and one of small capitals. The up- 
per case also contains boxes for the figures, accented 
letters, and the characters used for references to notes, 
&c. The lower case is appropriated to the small let- 
ters and double letters, points, parentheses, spaces, 
and quadrats. The spaces are pieces of metal of va- 
rious thicknesses, exactly fitted to the body of the let- 
ters, but a little shorter ; they are used to regulate the 
distances between words. The quadrats are pieces of 
type metal of equal thickness with the type. There 
are several sorts of quadrats : there are m quadrats 
and n quadrats, and two, three, and four m quadrats ; 
the m quadrats are the square of the letters, to what- 
ever font they may belong ; the n quadrats are half that 



12 PRINTING. 

size. M quadrats always begin a paragraph, by indent- 
ing the first line ; they are also the proper spaces after 
a full point, when it terminates a sentence in a para* 
graph. N quadrats are generally used after a colon, 
semicolon, &-c. and sometimes after a curved letter. 
Two m, three m, and four m quadrats, are used for 
break lines, white lines, and particularly for poetry, 
for which purpose they should be cast with -the utmost 
precision, else the words will stand uneven when many 
of them come together. 

The boxes of the lower case are of different sizes ; 
the arrangement in this instance is not alphabetical, 
but the letters most frequently wanted are placed 
nearest the compositor. Each case is placed in an 
inclined direction, that the compositor may reach the 
upper case with ease. As there is nothing on the out- 
side of the boxes to denote the letters which they 
contain, it is curious to observe the dexterity mani- 
fested by the compositor in finding and taking up the 
letters as he wants them from the different boxes. 

The instrument in which the letters are set is called 
a composing stick. It consists of a long plate of brass 
or iron, on the side of which is a ledge that runs the 
whole length of the plate, and serves to support the 
letters, the sides of which rest against it. Along this 
ledge is a row of holes, for the purpose of introducing 
a screw to lengthen or shorten the line, by moving the 
slides farther from or nearer to the shorter ledge at the 
end of the compositor's stick. 

Before the compositor begins to compose, he pro- 
cures a thin piece of brass or steel plate, called a rule, 



PRINTING. 13 

which is of the same length with the line, and the 
same height with the letter in the composing stick, 
parallel with the ledge against which the letters are 
intended to lean. The compositor being thus furnished 
with an instrument calculated to hold the letters as 
they are arranged into words, lines, he. places his 
copy on the upper case just before him, and holding 
the stick in his left hand he presses against the rule 
with his thumb, while with the right hand he takes up 
the letters, spaces, he. one by one, and places them 
against the rule. Having in this manner composed a 
line, he takes the rule from behind it, places it before 
the letters that are composed, and proceeds to compose 
another line in the same manner. But before he re- 
moves the brass rule, he observes whether the line 
ends with a complete word, or with the entire syllable 
of a word including the hyphen, which is put to denote 
a division when the word is divided into syllables. If 
he finds that his words exactly fill the measure, he has 
nothing more to do with that line, but proceeds to the 
next. When the composing stick has been filled with 
lines, the compositor transfers them to a thin oblong 
board, called a galley. When the compositor has 
filled and emptied his stick until he has composed a 
page, he ties this up with a strong cord, and removes 
it from the galley either to the imposing stone or to 
some other convenient place, and thus he proceeds 
until he has composed enough to make a sheet or 
half a sheet. After this, he proceeds to arrange the 
pages on the imposing stone, which is a large oblong 
3 



14 PRINTING. 

stone about five or six inches in thickness ; the pages 
are disposed in such a manner, that when folded they 
will follow each other regularly. 

Each sheet, or half-sheet, is denoted by a letter of 
the alphabet or a figure, which is termed a signature. 
Having disposed the pages in order on the imposing 
stone, the compositor then dresses the chases, which 
are iron frames, of different dimensions according to 
the size of the paper to be printed, having two cross 
bars of iron, one a long and the other a short bar, situ- 
ated at each end, and capable of being removed. By 
altering the situation of these bars, the chase may be 
fitted for volumes of different sizes, viz. octavos, duo- 
decimos, &tc. There is also a set of wooden or 
metal furniture belonging to the chase ; after the chase 
is laid over the pages, a part of the furniture called 
gutter sticks is placed between the respective pages ; 
another part of the furniture is placed at the side of the 
chase. Having dressed the inside of the chase, the 
compositor proceeds to do the same thing with the out- 
side, by putting side sticks and foot sticks to them. 
The pages being thus placed at proper distances, are 
all united and fastened together by means of small 
wooden wedges, called quoins. 

In this condition the work is called a form, and is 
ready for the first impression, which is termed & proof . 
When the proof sheet is taken, the forms are brushed 
over with ley made of pearl ash and water, to remove 
the ink ; they are then taken to the imposing stone 
for correction. The proof sheet is now taken to the 
proof reader, whose business it s to read attentively 



PRINTING. 15 

the whole proof, and mark in the margin of every page 
such errors as he shall discover. The following are 
some of the most common marks used by the proof 
reader to denote a mistake, and these marks are known 
by the printer. 

For an error in the spelling of a word, the wrong 
letter is marked and the right one is placed in the 
margin, thus : 

Printing is a useful art. i 

For an omission of a letter : 

Printng is a useful art. i 

For a superfluous letter : 

Printing is a useful art. d< 

(Care must be taken to turn the top of the fH , otherwise the letter 
d might be inserted.) 

For a letter bottom upwards : 

Printing is a useful art. 3 

When one word is divided into two : 

Prin^ting is a useful art. O 

When two words are joined together : 

Printingis a useful art. ~j± 

When words are transposed : 



Printing is useful | a art. tr 



16 PRINTING. 

Words which are to be printed in italics, have a 
single line marked under them ; those which are to be 
printed in small capitals, two; and those with large 
capitals, three — thus, 

Printing is a useful art. 

would be. printed thus, 

Printing is a useful ART. 

After the sheet is supposed to be correct, the com- 
positor having rectified such words as are wrong by 
altering the types, it is given to the pressman, whose 
province it is to strike off the sheets. Another im- 
pression is now taken, termed a revise sheet, to detect 
such errors as may have escaped correction, and to 
make all such alterations as the proof reader may deem 
necessary. 

The paper is prepared for use by being dipped in 
water, and afterwards laid in a heap. In order that 
the water may penetrate through all the sheets, a 
thick and heavy board is laid upon them, and on this 
board are placed heavy weights, or they are put in a 
screw press. They should remain in this situation 
from twelve to twenty-four hours. 

It is necessary that the paper should be wet, in 
order that it may become sufficiently soft to adhere to 
the letter, and absorb a sufficient quantity of ink. The 
form is now laid upon the press, and is covered with 
ink by means of composition rollers, duly prepared ; 
the paper is brought over, and the pressman subjects 
it to the powerful action of the press, in order to pro- 



PRINTING. 17 

duce the impression. One side being thus printed, 
the other side is subjected to a similar process, and this 
completes the pressman's duty. 

PRINTING PRESS. 

A printing press is a complicated machine, made 
upon true mechanical principles. It is uncertain who 
first invented the printing press ; but it received lit- 
tle improvement from an early period of the art till 
within the last century. 

The old printing presses were made of wood, and 
derived their power from a screw, which was turned 
by a lever. Lord Stanhope made many improvements 
on the printing press, but the most important was that 
of substituting cast-iron frames for wooden ones. Va- 
rious improvements have lately been made to facilitate 
the printing of newspapers, and even books : machines 
have been constructed in such a manner, as of them- 
selves to ink the types, convey the paper, and give 
the impression. The Napier printing machine, in- 
vented by M. Napier, a press-maker in London, is of 
this character. His double cylinder press, by means 
of which both sides of a sheet receive the impression 
at once, has been much celebrated ; but his single 
cylinder, which is more convenient, is fast going into 
use in this country. There are several in operation 
in New- York, and one in Boston. From 1200 to 1800 
impressions can be taken per hour. This press is 
made wholly of iron, and is put in motion by the force 
of one man. It has a self-inking apparatus, which 
consists of a fountain and elastic rollers; two boys are 
3a 



18 PRINTING. 

required, one to place the paper upon the cylinder, 
and one to receive it after the impression is taken. 
"The first machine that was worked by steam was 
erected by M. Koenig, in 1814. In this country, 
TrcadwelVs power press is the machine principally 
employed." In this machine the types are inked by 
elastic rollers, and the impressions are made upon a 
flat surface. 

STEREOTYPE PRINTING. 

Most school books and standard works are at the 
present day stereotyped. The process of stereotyping 
is as follows. 

The pages of the work are first set up with the 
moveable types,, and perfectly corrected ; a mould is 
then formed, by inserting them in a mixture of plaster 
of Paris and water ; after the mould is taken, it is 
submitted to the action of heat, which makes it hard 
and durable. Into this mould type metal is poured ; 
and thus a plate is cast, having all the characters in 
relief. From this plate the pages of the book receive 
their impression. 

The advantages of stereotype printing are, that no 
greater number of copies need be struck off than is 
convenient at a time, and that books can be printed 
at any time when there shall be a call for them, with- 
out the trouble, expense, and delay of setting up the 
types anew. A form can be removed and a new one 
substituted in ten minutes. 



PRINTING. 19 



QUESTIONS. 

How many modes of writing were there before the invention of 
letters ? 

What were they ? 

What was this kind of writing called ? 

How did the Mexicans write ? 

What improvement did the Egyptians make upon this plan ? 

On what did the ancients engrave their figures or pictures ? 

What nations have claimed the honour of inventing letters ? 

Which of these have the strongest claims ? 

Who first introduced letters into Greece ? 

What articles were used by the ancients on which to engrave letters ? 

Was linen ever used among the Romans ? 

What are parchment and vellum ? 

What substances were first used for making paper ? 

When and by whom was the art of making paper from cotton in- 
vented ? 

Is it known when paper made of linen was invented ? 

What is the process of making paper? 

When was writing paper first introduced into England ? 

Was ink used by the ancients ? 

What are the ingredients of modern ink ? 

Of what did the ancients make their ink ? 

What instruments were used by the ancients for writing ? 

What cities claim the honour of being the birthplace of the inventor 
of printing ? 

Who does Meerman say was the inventor ? 

Does Home agree with him ? 

What is the generally received opinion ? 

In what year was the discovery made ? 

What were the circumstances that led to the discovery ? 

When and by whom was printing first practised at Mentz ? 

Who assisted Geinsfleiche ? 

When was the first fount of metal types invented ? 

Did Faust continue in business after he dissolved partnership with 
Geinsfleiche ? 

Who did he take into business with him ? 



20 PRINTING. 

What did Schoeffer invent ? 

What gave rise to the story of Dr. Faustus and the Devil ? 

When was the Roman type introduced ? 

When and by whom was printing introduced into England ? 

What was the first book printed in the English language ? 

When was printing commenced in Ireland ? 

When in Mexico and the United States ? 

When and by whom was the first printing press erected in the 

United States ? 
Is the art of printing among the Chinese of ancient origin ? 
Describe their manner of printing. 
What are types composed of? 
How are they prepared ? 
What is a fount of letters ? 

What are the names of the types used in printing ? 
Which are most frequently used ? 

How many classes of workmen are there employed in printing ? 
What is the duty of the compositors ? 
What is the duty of the pressmen ? 
What does the compositor do with the types when he receives them 

from the founder ? 
How many boxes are there in the upper case, and how many in 

the lower ? 
What does the upper case contain ? 
What does the lower case contain ? 
What are spaces ? 
What are quadrats ? 

Is there more than one kind of quadrats ? 
What is the difference between them ? 
Is the arrangement in the lower case alphabetical ? 
What is the instrument called in which the letters are set ? 
How is it made ? 
What is the rule ? 
What it's use ? 
After the compositor is furnished with instruments, how does he 

proceed ? 
What is a galley ? 

What is the imposing stone, and what its use ? 

What is the letter or figure called, by which each sheet is denoted ? 
What is a chase ? 



PRINTING. 



21 



What it's use ? 

When in the chase, what is the work called ? 

What is the first impression termed ? 

What is done with the proof sheet ? 

What are the marks used by the proof reader ? 

How are words that are to be printed in italics, small capitals, or 

large capitals, known? 
What is done with the proof after correction ? 
What is the second impression called? 
How is paper prepared for use ? 

What is done with the form after the revise sheet is corrected ? 
What is a printing press ? 
By whom was it invented ? 
How were the old printing presses made ? 
What improvements did Lord Stanhope make in the press ? 
Have many improvements been made of late ? 
What is said of the Napier press ? 

When and by whom was the first machine worked by steam erected ? 
What machine is principally used in this country ? 
What is the process of stereotype printing ? 
What are the advantages obtained by this method of printing ? 



22 



PAINTING. 

Painting is the art of producing resemblances of 
natural objects upon a plane surface. If a painting 
was perfect, it would be impossible to distinguish it 
from the object it was intended to represent, and of 
course the nearer a painting approaches the original, 
the nearer it comes to perfection. 

THE HISTORY OF ANCIENT PAINTING. 

Among the ancient inhabitants of Asia and Ame- 
rica, painting,' or the representation of objects, seems 
to have been the earliest and only method of writing. 
It appears to have its earliest date in China, India, 
and Persia, and the picture writing of the ancient 
Mexicans is well known. The outline of objects was 
painted in profile, the colours were applied without any 
mixture, and without any regard to light and shade. 
The Egyptians had but six colours : red, blue, yellow, 
green, black, and white, and these they never mixed. 
The shrouds and cases of Egyptian mummies are ex- 
amples of their style of painting. 

The history of the art of painting in Greece, at least 
the early part of it, is obscure. There are specimens 
of Grecian sculpture extant, but none of Grecian paint- 
ng. The earliest Grecian painting on record is the 
Battle of Magnete, executed by Bularchus,B. C. 718, 
which was purchased by Candaules, king of Lydia, 



PAINTING. 23 

for its weight in gold. The art is said to have flourish- 
ed several centuries previous to this at Corinth. The 
art had then advanced no farther than the circum- 
spection of single lines, and was called sciographia. 
Something of the effect of light and shade was then 
taught : this was termed graphice. Then Cleophan- 
tes filled up this outline with one colour ; such paint- 
ings were called monochrons. Afterward, the art of 
varying the attitude and of distinguishing the muscles 
was discovered : the mouth was opened, the teeth dis- 
played, the head ornamented, &c. But the art was 
in a very inferior state till about the time of the Pelo- 
ponnesian war, B.C. 440, when Phidias and Apollo- 
dorus lived. Apelles carried the art to its highest 
perfection, B. C. 330, and united in his own style all 
the beauties which characterised the works of his pre- 
decessors. His Venus was esteemed the most beau- 
tiful example of Grecian painting, and was purchased 
long afterwards by Augustus for £-20,000. From 
his time painting gradually declined in Greece. 

Among the Romans this art was never carried be- 
yond mere embellishment. They considered this as 
they did most other arts, as ministering to luxury, and 
as worthy the employment of slaves only. Fabius 
Pictor was the first native Roman painter mentioned, 
B. C. 303. It was a century before Pacuvius follow- 
ed him. In the time of Messala, B. C. 235, painting 
was in considerable repute. In the time of Nero and 
Claudius, A. D. 50, the art began to degenerate. 
Examples of Roman painting are found in the frescos 



24 



PAINTING. 



of Herculaneum and Pompeii, and in the baths of 
Titus at Rome, though the former were perhaps ex- 
ecuted by Greek painters. 

HISTORY OF THE ART. 

The first specimens of modern painting which are 
found are those of Theophilus, a Greek, who lived in 
Venice about the year 1200. Cimabue, born at Flo- 
rence, 1240, is the father of modern painting, and 
from his time an unbroken history of masters and 
works may be traced. If a slight and general bio- 
graphical sketch of some of the great masters of the 
art in different countries is given, a better view of its 
history may be obtained than by any other mode. 
We will therefore mention the names of some great 
painters in connection with their works. 

Among the first that stand upon the list may be 
mentioned Leonardo da Vinci, born 1452. He was 
the first who gave rules and form to the art, and raised 
it to a high degree of perfection. He was a man of 
taste and intelligence, a philosopher, a poet, and an 
artist. The most celebrated of all his works is the 
Last Supper, painted at Milan. In this picture are 
exhibited the most striking displays of expression, and 
the correctness of the drawing is unequalled. The 
head of Peter is said to have been taken from a man 
whom he was in the habit of seeing in the streets. 
He stands in the picture, leaning forward, and upsets 
the salt. In the face of Bartholomew there is the 
expression of astonishment. In the face of Andrew 
is expressed much mildness, mingled with surprise. 



PAINTING. 25 

John, unmingled grief, has not the power to answer 
the question of Peter. Christ stands unmoved, ex- 
cept there be a slight touch of pity in strong contrast 
with the rending passions of his disciples. The whole 
painting was a most splendid specimen of the art. 

Michael Angelo was born at Florence in 1474. 
He was of a noble family, but having a strong desire 
to cultivate his taste for the arts, he became at last 
the most perfect master both of sculpture and paint- 
ing of his age. The walls and ceiling of the Sextine 
Chapel, with the picture of the Last Judgment, are the 
principal of his works in painting. The Last Judg- 
ment is the greatest work of modern art. It is fifty 
feet high and forty wide, and contains upwards of 
300 figures as large as life. " There the human form 
appears under every variety of position, and agitated 
by every gradation of feeling ; and over the whole is 
diffused a living ease, a magic power, a fascination, 
which constrains us to gaze with astonishment and 
admiration, but not with interest or sympathy. An 
ideal abstraction of mind was the object of his imi- 
tation." 

Raphael, the founder and master of the Roman 
school, was born at Urbino, 1483, and died in his 
thirty-seventh year. He left to posterity some of the 
finest specimens of the art. He executed in his seven- 
teenth year, a picture representing the Holy Family ; 
his pictures of the Virgin and Infant, St. John, the Ma- 
donna, and many others, have been much celebrated. 
His best work, however, was the Transfiguration, No 
4 



26 PAINTING. 

one painter has ever done so much for the improve- 
ment and perfection of the art as Raphael. 

Titian was the great ornament of Venetian paint- 
ing. He was a man of great skill and taste ; his ex- 
cellence consisted in his beautiful colouring. His co- 
lours were laid on pure and unmixed. 

About the middle of the sixteenth century a school 
was formed by the three Caracci, which was con- 
ducted upon the best principles. At this school, stu- 
dents were instructed in anatomy, in drawing, in paint- 
ing, and in composition. Guido was of this school ; 
and associated with his name is every thing that is 
graceful and beautiful in the art. The last great Ita- 
lian painter was Salvator Rosa, who died in 1673. 
He was the only natural landscape painter which that 
delightful and picturesque country has produced. 

GERMAN PAINTERS. 

John of Bruges, a Flemish painter, born at the 
beginning of the fifteenth century, was the first who 
brought into general use oil colours. Contemporary 
and immediately succeeding Bruges were many pain- 
ters of acknowledged skill ; but the great masters of 
German painting were Rubens and Vandyke. 

Rubens was born at Antwerp in 1577, and died in 
1640. He did not imitate nature so closely as many 
others ; but there was a richness in his colouring, in 
the variety of his figures, and grouping, which con- 
cealed his defects. His landscape paintings generally 
were better than his portraits or his historical works. 



PAINTING, 



27 



The best painting of his is the Crucifixion, at Antwerp, 
and the largest, the Allegories of Maria de Medici, in 
the Louvre. 

Vandyke was a disciple of Rubens. His portraits 
are said to be among the finest specimens of painting. 
He was a close imitator of nature, and in his colouring 
he was excelled only by Titian. 

In France, the three great masters of the art were 
Vouet, LeBrun, and David. Vouet, the first French 
painter of eminence, was born in 1582. He was edu- 
cated at the academy which was founded by Richelieu, 
prime minister to Louis XIII. 

Le Brun was born in 1619, and became a favourite 
pupil of Vouet at an early age. The best works of 
Le Brun are the five great pictures from the life of 
Alexander. He had great skill ; but there is a want 
of simplicity in most of his figures. He, as well as 
Vouet, enjoyed the favour of the Court ; and all other 
artists were obliged to imitate him, or remain without 
employment. 

David, the founder of the modern school in France, 
was born in 1750. He was a man of great genius ; 
his drawing was correct, and his style of design noble. 
He was driven into exile at the close of the Revolu- 
tion, and died at Brussels in 1825. His best works 
are, Leonidas with the Spartans at Thermopylae, the 
Death of Socrates, the Funeral of Patroclus, the Rape 
of the Sabines, and the Coronation of Napoleon. 

Sir Joshua Reynolds was the founder of the En- 
glish school of historical painting. The principles 
that he laid down have been followed by all succeed- 



28 



PAINTING. 



ing artists, or have influenced their practice, not only 
in historical painting, but in portraiture. Sir Joshua 
excelled in his representations of children, as the In- 
fant Hercules, the Strawberry Girl, Hope nursing 
Love, &c. 

Of all the landscape painters of the English school, 
Wilson and Gainsborough unquestionably stand 
first. The former of these excelled in the effect and 
magnificence of his composition ; but the latter is more 
natural. 

There are three distinct departments in the art of 
painting, viz. Perspective, Chiaro Oscuro, and Co- 
louring. 

PERSPECTIVE. 

Perspective, instead of a mere department of paint- 
ing, is generally considered a science of itself. It is 
the science by which we are enabled to represent per- 
fectly, in a picture of given size and position, objects 
as they would appear to the eye when seen from a 
given point. 

At what sera perspective became an organized sci- 
ence, it is difficult to tell ; but when we consider how 
far advanced the ancients were in geometry, sculpture, 
painting, and architecture, we have every reason to 
believe that perspective was equally well understood 
by them ; for it cannot be supposed that a science so 
essential to them all, should have been neglected. 

Among the oldest writers who have prescribed cer- 
tain rules for perspective, were Bramantino, of Milan, 
1440, and Serlio, 1540. But it was not until the com- 



PAINTING. 29 

mencement of the seventeenth century that its princi- 
ples were elaborately explained by Guido Ubaldi. 
Many works have since been written, but have little or 
no reference to its general application to painting, — an 
art which has in all ages been classed among the most 
valuable of those which are called elegant, and for 
which the finest taste is insufficient without a know- 
ledge of its rules. The principal modern authors on 
perspective are Malton, Le Breton, &c. 

Perspective may be divided into two parts : I. Li- 
near, which relates to the form or outline of objects ; 
and II. Aerial, relating to their colours, distances, 
lights, and shadows. It is with the former that we are 
now more particularly concerned. 

The principal lines and points used in perspective 
which assist us in the correct delineation of objects, 
are the following. 

Station, is a point representing the position of the 
observer. 

Field of vision, is the space embraced by one glance 
or fixed position of the eye. This may subtend an 
angle of 60°, but not more than 40° with advantage. 

The picture, or plane of delineation, is a supposed 
plane between the observer and the object to be deli- 
neated, and is represented by the canvass or paper on 
which the object is to be drawn. 

Base line, is the bottom of the picture. 

Horizontal line, is a line drawn through the pic- 
ture, parallel to the horizon, at the height of the ob- 
server's eye. This line of c©urse ascends and des- 
cends with the eye. 
4a 



30 PAINTING. 

Point of sight, is the point in the horizontal line 
directly opposite the eye. When we look in a mirror, 
our eye reflected in the mirror may be considered as 
the point of sight. 

In nature, the point of sight is always the centre of 
the field of vision. But experience has demonstrated 
that this position is not the most advantageous in re- 
gard to art. It should vary according to the subject 
to be delineated. For landscapes, the most advan- 
tageous position for the point of sight is at one-third 
the height of the picture from the base line. For his- 
torical subjects, it should be placed at the height of 
the eye of the principal personage. In regard to the 
breadth of the picture, the centre of the horizontal 
line is in general assumed ; but it may be carried to 
the right or left at the pleasure of the artist, accord- 
ing to the nature of the objects he would represent. 
In this last case, as in the preceding, it is not the point 
of sight of the real picture that is removed, we only 
suppress some lateral portion of the picture which the 
eye embraces in nature. 

When we enter a long gallery and look to the other 
extremity, the ceiling seems to descend, the floor to 
ascend, and the side lines, though actually parallel, 
seem to converge to a single point at the end of the 
gallery. It is the same with all pictures which our 
eye can embrace in nature. The point above men- 
tioned is called a vanishing point, and the lines van- 
ishing lines. The point of sight is also the principal 
vanishing point of most pictures, for all lines parallel 
to each other and perpendicular to the horizon, con- 



GROUND PiAN. 



Feint 
efSu/ht 



Jtase Line 



Static 7? 



V 








nnn 


Faint 


w 


a a 
n ri 


ffvr 


izcn 


talli 


ne 




m 


of Sight 


OP 





'.ine of 
ntact 

1 1 



ie Line 



PAINTING. 31 

verge to the point of sight. In fact, all lines and points 
may be referred to the point of sight, and what we 
shall next mention. 

The point of distance is the distance of the observer 
from the picture, measured from the eye to the point 
of sight, or from his station to the base line. The 
most advantageous distance to be chosen is twice, or 
what is better, especially for landscapes, three times 
the breadth of the picture. Under some circumstances, 
the point of distance must be placed in the picture 
itself; as, for example, when we design an interior, it 
is impossible to withdraw ourselves from the picture. 
The use of the point of distance is to furnish means of 
marking depths in a picture, or the distance of objects 
as seen in perspective. 

Visual rays are supposed lines proceeding from the 
eye to every part of the objects under view. 

Line of contact, a line on which the real height of 
objects is marked, and from whence lines are to be 
carried to the vanishing points. 

Ground plan, is the delineation of an object as it 
stands upon the ground, and in relation to the picture. 

Elevation, a plan of the front and sides of an object. 

A single diagram may sufficiently illustrate the use 
and position of these lines. 



32 PAINTING. 



CHIAE.0 OSCURO. 



This forms one of the most important departments 
in painting. It means simply light and shade, or clear 
and obscure. 

It is expressed in two ways : I. The necessary and 
true ; II. The probable and ideal. 

Light and darkness are two opposite powers ; they 
are continually striving against each other, A shade 
is made where a direct light does not fall ; but where 
there is a shade, there is more or less reflected light. 
In proportion to the strength of the reflection, the 
shade is weak; and if the reflector be a mirror, it 
disappears, because all the rays of light are then re- 
flected. 

Light is of four kinds, viz. natural, artificial, mixed, 
and ideal. 

I. Natural light is again divided into several kinds. 
1. From the sun directly, and this varies according to 
the time of day and the degree of vapour in the at- 
mosphere. 2. From a clear atmosphere, but not di- 
rectly from the sun ; as for instance, from a northern 
window, where the rays of the sun cannot enter di- 
rectly, but are reflected. This kind of light is much 
the best for an artist to work by, as it remains the 
same through the day. 3. From the sun, when the 
rays pass through clouds and mists. These two last 
kinds of light are called lume aperto. 4. Moonlight, 
which few artists have used with success. 

II. Artificial light. The light which proceeds from 



PAINTING. 



33 



a candle or fire is of this kind. This kind of light 
always tinges its objects with some particular colour, 
and in painting produces an effect more or less striking 
in proportion to the absence or presence of all other 
light. 

III. Mixed. This kind of light is a mixture of na- 
tural and artificial. It is difficult for artists to use 
this; but if it can be done with skill, it has many 
advantages. 

IV. Ideal light. This does not exist in nature, but 
is such as we see emanating from divinities. It has 
many advantages, because it is an absolute creation 
of the imagination, and is not, therefore, subjected to 
natural laws. 

In distributing light several rules must be observed, 
in order to secure its proper effect. 

1. The sun must not be painted in full splendour. 

2. The greatest light should be thrown on the chief 
figure, because the eye is always caught by the light, 
and turns instinctively to it. 

3. The light should be distributed in a picture as 
it distributes itself on a ball — the strongest on the most 
prominent part; then gradually melting into those 
less so. 

4. Use great masses of light and shade. Titian 
gives a good rule upon this subject : " Take," said he, 
" the grape bunch for an example, where each grape 
has its own peculiar light and shade, and where the 
whole bunch has its masses of both." 

5. If the light be direct, some stratagem must be 
used to introduce a shade that is probable, though 
not true. 



34 PAINTING, 

6. If the light is reflected, be careful to observe 
from what objects it is reflected, as it generally gets a 
hue from them; and the doctrine of light applies to 
that of colouring. 

SHADE. 

1. Shade is formed by bodies according to their 
natural form. 

2. It accommodates itself to the object on which it 
falls. 

3. If the luminous object which causes the shade 
be larger than the body, then the shade must diminish 
in proportion to the distance, thus : 



But if it be under, it must increase, thus 




4. Shade always pre-supposes a reflection of light, 
and care must be taken that it be not too strong. 



COLOURING. 



This includes the doctrines and theories of physical 



light. 



From the science of optics, we learn that the rays 
of the sun are composed of seven primary colours. 



PAINTING. 



35 



These colours are violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, 
orange, and red. Three of them are capable of pro- 
ducing the rest by proper admixture ; these are blue, 
red, and yellow. The surface of every natural object 
has the power to reflect certain rays, while it absorbs 
the rest. This power renders the diversity of colour 
infinite, for the primary colours are not only reflected, 
but every grade and modification of them. A painter 
must be capable of mixing colours, so as to be able to 
give the natural ones of those objects which he intends 
to represent ; and when laid on, they should not inter- 
fere with the light and shades which are necessary to 
place the object in relief. 

In painting a round object three tints are necessary, 
viz. the light, the middle tint, and the dark. The 
middle tint must be the colour of the object, or as near 
the natural colour as possible ; and around this is laid 
on the light tint, and around the edges of the object 
the dark. 

When several objects are grouped together, two 
colours are necessary in order to produce harmony in 
the picture. These colours are called original and 
adventitious. The original colour is the natural co- 
lour of the object represented, and the adventitious 
the colour that is reflected from the surrounding ob- 
jects. Every object reflects its own peculiar colour 
upon surrounding objects ; this fact it is highly neces- 
sary for painters to understand, in order to give cor- 
rect representations. Colours are also divided by 
painters into cold, warm, and neutral. Cold colours 
are the blue, gray, and others that resemble them ; 



36 PAINTING. 

warm colours are the red, yellow, &c. ; and the neu- 
tral are intermediate tints, or mixtures of cold and 
warm. 

There are four modes of painting, viz. in water, in 
oil, in distemper, and in fresco. 

PAINTING IN WATER COLOURS. 

This kind of painting is used principally on paper. 
The colours are prepared by reducing them to a fine 
powder, and then formed into hard cakes by means of 
gum. When used, these cakes are mixed with a small 
quantity of water by rubbing them on wet glass, and 
then applied by means of small pencils made of ca- 
mel's hair. 

OIL PAINTING. 

Oil paintings of design are generally executed on 
canvass. The colours are mixed with oil that has the 
property of drying rapidly. The nut and poppy oil 
are the best, on account of their transparency ; but 
the linseed oil, after it has been boiled, is sometimes 
used. Oil paintings are very durable, and are rather 
improved than injured by age. 

This kind of painting was first brought into general 
use by John of Bruges, a Flemish painter. 

PAINTING IN DISTEMPER. 

This kind of painting is principally used for large 
works, such as the scenery of the stage, or the ceiling 
of rooms. 



PAINTING. 37 

The colours are mixed with glue and water or 
skimmed milk, and applied with a brush. 

PAINTING IN FRESCO. 

The Italian masters have excelled in this kind of 
painting. It is executed upon walls and ceilings, 
which have been covered with a coating of stucco or 
mortar. The paint must be applied while the mortar 
is wet, else it will not incorporate itself with the paint, 
which is necessary. The design is first drawn on 
paper, and transferred to the walls by means of a sharp 
point. Some of the Italian churches and cathedrals 
are beautifully ornamented with this kind of painting. 



QUESTIONS. 

What is painting ? 

What purpose did painting answer among the ancients ? 

Where was it first practised ? 

How many colours had the Egyptians ? 

Where do we find examples of Egyptian painting ? 

What is the earliest Grecian painting on record ? 

By whom and for what price was it purchased ? 

When was the effect of light and shade first taught ? 

When did Phidias and Apollodorus live ? 

Who carried the art to a higher perfection than they ? 

What was his best work ? 

Was the art ever carried to any degree of perfection among th« 

Romans ? 
Where are examples of Roman painting found ? 
What are the first specimens of modern painting ? 
Who was the father of modern painting ? 
Give us the history of Leonardo and of his work*. 
Of Michael Angelo. 
Of Raphael. 
5 



38 PAINTING. 

Give us the history of Titian. 

By whom was the school established in the 16th centurv 

Was Guido of this school ? 

Who was the last great Italian painter ? 

Who are the most celebrated German painters ? 

What is the history of Rubens and Vandyke ? 

Who are the most celebrated of French painters ? 

What is their history ? 

How many distinct departments are there in painting? 

What is said of perspective ? 

When did it become organized ? 

Who have written on this subject? 

Into how many parts may it be divided ? 

What are they ? 

What are the principal lines or points used in perspective ? 

What is the most advantageous point of sight in the different kind' 

of painting ? 
What is meant by chiaro oscuro ? 
How is it expressed ? 
What is light and darkness ? 
What is shade ? 

How many kinds of light are there ? 
How is natural light divided ? 
What is artificial light ? 
What mixed light ? 
What ideal light ? 

What are the rules to be observed in distinguishing light ? 
How is shade formed in painting ? 
What does colouring include ? 
What do we learn from the science of optics ? 
How many colours are there ? 
What gives to bodies their colour ? 

How many tints are necessary in painting a round object? 
How many colours are necessary in painting grouped objects : 
What are they called ? 

What are the cold colours, and what the hot ? 
How many modes of painting are there ? 
How do you paint in water colour ? 
How in oil ? 
How in distemper? 
How in fresco ? 



39 



SCULPTURE. 



HISTORY. 



The art of sculpture, if it did not originate with the 
Egyptians, was carried by them to a considerable de- 
gree of perfection. The materials they used were a 
species of soft sand-stone, and several varieties of cal- 
careous rock of various shades. The Egyptians were 
famous for their colossal statues. These were some- 
times of granite, and were fifty or sixty feet high. 
Many of the ancient Egyptian buildings had their 
whole exterior covered with relievos. From Egypt 
the art received its first impress ; but in Greece, many 
improvements, as to the principles of a correct taste 
and composition, were made in it. 

To the isles of Samos and Chios we are to look for 
the first celebrated schools and masters of Grecian 
sculpture. Rhaecus, a Simean master, about the 
year 777 B. C. first obtained celebrity as a sculp- 
tor in brass. The Chian school claims the honour of 
having first introduced the use of marble. To this 
school we are also to look for the first bronze statues. 
The earliest works of this kind were not cast, but were 
executed with a hammer. 

Among the numerous and distinguished artists which 
Greece has produced, none perhaps stands higher than 
Phidias. 



40 



SCULPTURE. 



He was born about 500 years before the Christian 
era. He made statues of mixed materials, such as 
ivory, gold, &c. His Olympian Jupiter and the Mi- 
nerva of the Parthenon, colossal statues, composed of 
gold and ivory, were the most wonderful and extra- 
ordinary productions of ancient art. " The former, 
placed in the temple at Elis, was sixty feet high, in 
a reposing attitude, the body naked to the cincture, 
the lower limbs clothed in a robe gemmed with golden 
flowers ; the hair was also of gold, bound with an 
enamelled crown ; the eyes of precious stones ; the 
rest of ivory. Notwithstanding its gigantic propor- 
tions, every part was wrought with the most scrupu- 
lous delicacy: even the splendid throne was carved 
with exquisite' taste. It was finished after a labour of 
ten years." 

" About twelve years later he executed the Miner- 
va, of inferior dimensions, being only forty feet in 
altitude, but equal, if not superior, in beauty of work- 
manship and richness of materials, the middle being 
of ivory and the ornaments of gold. A flowing tunic 
added grace to the erect attitude of the goddess. In 
one hand was a spear, on the head a casque, on the 
ground a buckler, exquisitely carved, the concave 
representing the giants' war, the convex a conflict with 
the Amazons ; portraits of the artist and his patron 
being introduced among the Athenian combatants. 
On the golden sandals was also sculptured another 
favourite subject, the battle of the Centaurs, praised 
by historians as a perfect gem of minute art." 



SCULPTURE. 41 

Michael Angelo was not only a great painter, but 
he gave to the art of modern sculpture a more power- 
ful impulse than even Phidias did to the ancient. 
He lived in a time favourable to the development of 
genius, and his was universal. His works in sculpture 
are not numerous. His two greatest productions are 
the Pieta or Virgin and the Dead Saviour, in St. 
Peter's church at Rome, and Moses on the Tomb of Ju- 
lius II. The latter has remained unimitated in modern 
times, and has no model among ancient productions. 
From the time of Michael Angelo to the present, we 
can trace an unbroken chain of artists among the dif- 
ferent nations of the continent ; many of these, men of 
eminence and acknowledged genius. A detail of them 
is unnecessary in an elementary work like this. 

The ancients considered plastic, or works in terra 
cotta, statuary, or works in bronze, and sculpture, or 
works in marble, as three distinct departments ; but 
the moderns under the term sculpture include them 
all. Sculpture, then, admitting this meaning of the 
word, is divided into two classes : 1st. statues, 2nd. 
reliefs. By the term relief is meant a partial sculp- 
ture, or lateral views of figures, raised upon a plane. 
Reliefs are divided into basso relievo or low relief, 
when the figures have not the prominence their out- 
lines require ; alto relievo or high relief, where the 
figures seem to issue from the back ground and appear 
highly perfect. Mezzo relievo or middle relief, is 
where the figures are half raised from their surface. 

The materials used in sculpture are of three kinds : 
1st, soft materials, such as earth, wax, &c; 2nd, hard, 
5a 



42 SCULPTURE. 

such as wood, cork, ivory, marble ; and 3rd, bronze. 
The subjects are made by modelling when the mate- 
rial is soft, by casting when it can be melted, and by 
car vino; when it is hard. 

Earth, when employed, should be fine and free from 
sand. The work is partly done by the hands, and 
partly by wooden instruments. After the desired 
shape is obtained, the work is exposed to heat till 
it is hard. Small figures made of earth should be solid, 
but large ones are usually hollow. When these are 
finished and partly dried, they are separated into con- 
venient pieces and afterwards baked ; the parts are 
then fitted together and cemented by means of gyp- 
sum, and the whole is coloured. 

Figures made of earth are better for exposed situa- 
tions than those of sancl-stone or marble, as they are 
not so easily defaced. Copies may be taken from 
these figures, either by casting them in gypsum, or by 
carving them in marble. 

WAX. 

Figures may be made of wax by first making a 
form or mould, and then pouring the melted wax into 
it. Moulds or casts are frequently taken from living 
faces in the following manner. Cover the face with 
oil or ointment, introduce a tube into each nostril for 
the purpose of breathing, and then cover the face with 
gypsum finely powdered and mixed with water, which 
soon hardens. This is removed in pieces, which, when 
again united, form a mould in which the figure may be 
cast. The property which gypsum or plaster of Paris 



SCULPTURE. 43 

has when finely powdered and mixed with water, of 
soon hardening, renders it very valuable for casting. 

BUSTS. 

Statues and vases are sometimes made of paper, 
which is covered with a casting of gypsum, and which 
gives them the appearance of casts. 

Statues made of marble were both designed and 
finished by ancient artists, but among the moderns the 
invention and the labour of carving are separated. 

The modern artist forms his model in clay, and 
delivers it over to the labourer to execute the me- 
chanical part, by transferring it to marble. This is 
done exactly by a series of actual admeasurements. 
A frame work is set up around the block of marble, 
and also around the model, from which plumb lines 
are hung, and in this way all the portions and relative 
distances are accurately obtained. The block is then 
shaped and finished by scraping, chiselling, rasping, 
&c. and is polished by a fine powder made of pumice 
stone and some metallic oxide. 

BRONZE CASTING. 

A mould is formed of some material that will resist 
the action of heat, as for instance clay and brick-dust. 
The inside is then covered with wax or with clay, 
moulded to the shape and thickness which the metal 
is intended to have. The remaining space is then 
filled up with the same material of which the mould is 
composed. Iron straps and bars are passed through 
and arcund the mould, in order to give it support. 



44 SCULPTURE. 

The whole is now heated, and the wax when melted 
Tuns out through an aperture, leaving the space to be 
occupied by the metal ; or if the layer be clay, it is 
removed by taking off the outside case, and afterwards 
replacing it. The melted metal is now poured in 
through an aperture, and occupies the place that before 
was occupied by the wax or clay. The mould is now 
removed, and the metal finished and polished by proper 
instruments. 

The ancients carved figures in wood. They used 
hard, but the moderns use soft wood. Carving in 
wood is the most ancient of all kinds of sculpture. 

Ivory was used also by the ancients for statues. 
The two great productions of Phidias, which have 
before been mentioned, were made principally of ivory. 
The ivory was put together in small equal blocks or 
cubes, so as to form a mass large enough to work out 
the statue. 

GEM. 

Gem engraving may be considered as belonging to 
the art of sculpture, rather than to that of engraving. 

Gem engraving is of two kinds : 1st. that which 
represents objects in bas relief, or figures raised above 
the surface ; 2nd. that which represents the figures 
below the surface, and which can be transferred to 
some soft substance. The former kind of engraving is 
called cameo, and the latter intaglio. 

Gem engraving is for the most part executed by 
applying the gem to emery wheels of different sizes 
and different degrees of fineness. In this way also 
precious stones are cut into various shapes. 



SCULPTURE. 45 



QUESTIONS. 

Where did the art of sculpture originate ? 

What materials did they use ? 

What were they famous for ? 

Where are we to look for established Grecian schools and masters ? 

What claims have the Chian schools ? 

What Grecian artist stands highest ? 

Of what did he make his statues? 

What are his most celebrated ? 

What are the most celebrated works of Michael Angelo ? 

How many distinct departments did the ancients consider ? 

Do the moderns include all in sculpture ? 

How is sculpture divided ? 

What are the materials used in sculpture ? 

How are the subjects made ? 

How is earth employed ? 

What material is best for figures for exposed situations ? 

Why are figures made of earth, when exposed, better than those 

made of marble or sand stone? 
How are figures made of wax ? 
What are busts ? 
How are they made ? 
How are statues of marble made ? 
How is bronze casting done ? 

What kind of wood did the ancients use for carving? 
What other substances were used? 
How many kinds of gem engraving are there ? 
What are they ? 
How are they executed ? 



46 



ENGRAVING. 

Engraving may be divided into three classes, ac- 
cording to the materials on which it is wrought. These 
materials are wood, copper, and steel. 

I. WOOD. 

The period of the invention of wood engraving is 
much contested. We know that in the barbarous ages, 
kings who could not write had wooden stamps, with 
their names cut upon them, with which they made 
their signatures. The great point is to determine the 
time when cards were first printed, as genuine wood 
engraving seems first to have been used for this pur- 
pose. That Laurentius or Coster engraved in wood 
about the year 1430, is extremely probable. From 
this time there may be traced an unbroken series of 
artists. The mechanical process of wood engraving is 
as follows. A piece of hard wood with fine grain is 
selected. A block is prepared from this, the size of 
the figure desired, and the end of it is made smooth. 
The design is now drawn upon it in an inverted order, 
by means of a lead pencil. Every part of the wood is 
then cut away, except where the pencil has touched, 
and the subject is left in relief, and may be inserted in 
a form with common types, and printed without addi- 
tional expense. 



ENGRAVING. 47 

Wood engraving is likewise done in the following 
manner. The work to be engraved may be designed 
on paper, with red chalk. The wood being covered 
with white chalk, the design is laid upon it and pressure 
is made, till the red chalk adheres to the white. The 
wood is then cut away as before, leaving the red marks. 

II. COPPER. 

Engraving on copper was invented by a Florentine 
goldsmith, who was in the habit of working in niello, a 
kind of enamel in gold and silver, filling up the traces 
of his instrument with a black substance. 

In order to be certain that his work was right, he 
often took proofs of it in sulphur, and at last on moist 
paper. This was about the year 1460. From this, 
the art of engraving on copper was suggested to him. 
He carried the art, with the assistance of Baccio Bal- 
dini, to a considerable degree of perfection. 

The copper on which a subject is to be engraved, 
is prepared as follows. A sheet of wrought copper, 
about an eighth of an inch in thickness, is rubbed, first 
with sand-stone, then with brick-dust, and finally with 
pumice-stone, until it is perfectly smooth and polished, 
to ascertain which, it must be examined carefully with 
a magnifying glass. Engravings on copper are exe- 
cuted by several methods, of which the following are 
most worthy of notice. 

1. BY THE GRAVER. 

The graver is a small steel instrument, made of a 
square rod, about one eighth of an inch thick, and 



48 ENGE.AVING. 

about five inches long. It has a handle attached to 
one end, while the other is pointed by being cut ob- 
liquely and diagonally. With this instrument lines are 
cut upon the copper, as may be required. 

The design is drawn with red chalk on oiled paper, 
which is laid upon the plate and passed through a 
press, to give it the impression. 

The outline is then traced with very fine strokes by 
the graver, and in this manner the work is filled out ; 
the artist often taking impressions as the work advan- 
ces, to prove its success. In engraving, much greater 
steadiness and assurance is given to the pencil or gra- 
ver, if the principal movements are made with the plate 
itself, turned by the left hand, upon a circular cushion 
covered with leather. The triangular form of the gra- 
ver renders the lines narrowed as they descend into 
the plate, so that as the plate becomes worn by use, 
the lines become proportionally fainter. 

Engravings done by the graver alone, when minutely 
examined, are apt to have an air of precision and even 
stiffness about them, owing to the very nature of the 
operation. The most common species of engraving 
are done by making with the graver minute parallel 
lines. This is called line engraving. Some of the 
finest and most beautiful specimens of the art have 
been produced in this manner. Another method is 
stippling, which consists in making minute dots or 
points in the copper. The dots are made either with 
the graver or with the dry-point, which is a sort of 
needle, intended for drawing the fine lines. 



ENGRAVING. 49 

Line engraving is executed with more facility, and 
is less expensive than stippling. The method of pre- 
paring the copper is the same in both cases. 

2. WITH NITRIC ACID. ETCHING. 

This method of engraving is performed by chemical 
erosion. 

It was invented at the beginning of the 16th cen- 
tury, and was known in Italy and Germany about the 
same time. For the purpose of etching, the plate of 
copper is placed upon coals and heated. Then a 
quantity of wax, covered with a thin piece of cloth, is 
rubbed on the warm copper plate, till so much of it 
has passed through as to cover the plate with a fine 
coat. 

It is then suspended over a candle till it is well 
blacked with the smoke, after which it is laid on the 
coals, and kept there till the vapour, which at first 
arises from the edges of the plate, contracts towards the 
centre and disappears, and the moment it has disap- 
peared, the whole must be taken from the fire, and 
left to cool. The design is drawn on paper with red 
chalk, as before, and taken off upon the black varnish. 
The etching now follows, which is done with a point- 
ed instrument like a straight awl. When the copper 
is laid bare where it is intended the engraving should 
be made, an edge of wax or a kind of rim is formed 
around the whole plate half an inch high. The plate 
is then covered with nitric acid, and is agitated till the 
acid takes effect where the wax has been removed by 
the needle. It is then poured off, the rim of wax is 
6 



50 ENGRAVING. 

taken away, the whole is placed upon coals, oil is 
dropped on the coating to assist in loosening it, and 
thus the plate is laid bare. 

An impression is now taken to see the progress of 
the work. The plate is then replaced upon the coals 
till it is heated, when it is varnished, but not smoked. 
The acid is again poured upon it, and this process is 
repeated till the work is finished. 

The form of the lines produced by etching, is ex- 
actly the reverse of that made by the graver ; the lines 
or dots being broadest at the bottom ; and of course, 
when worn, the impression becomes darker and the 
lines broader. As the effects of the acid cannot be so 
completely controlled as the movements of the graver, 
plates prepared in this way have a degree of roughness, 
when closely examined. There is a little uncertainty 
and unevenness in the lines, which distinguish them 
from those done by the graver. 

3. MEZZO TINTO. 

The invention of this method of engraving has been 
ascribed to Prince Rupert, to Sheridan an English 
engraver, and to Sir Christopher Wren ; but it is pro- 
bably the invention of a Hessian ; and the oldest piece 
extant is the head of the Electress Amelia, marked 
1643. 

In Italy, this method of engraving has not succeed- 
ed ; but in Germany, and especially in England, ex- 
quisite works have been produced by it. An artist 
has lately commenced it at Philadelphia with success ; 
and this is the first attempt in America. 



ENGRAVING. 



51 



A plate of copper prepared as before, is rendered 
rough with an instrument called, from its form, a her- 
ceau or cradle, full of very fine teeth at the bottom. 
This is rolled over the plate till it is so indented, that 
if an impression were taken, it would have the appear- 
ance of velvet. 

An instrument made of polished steel, called a bur- 
nisher, is now taken, with which the projections are 
rubbed down, wherever light is to be represented ; 
and thus as much light is introduced as is desired, and 
the rest is left dark. Impressions are taken from time 
to time, to prove the progress of the work. This spe- 
cies of engraving is sometimes united with that done 
by the graver ; but it does not succeed well. 

4. OPUS MALLEI, OR ENGRAVING WITH THE 
HAMMER. 

The inventor of this method of engraving is not 
known. The oldest picture of the kind now extant, 
was engraved by Stephanus, a goldsmith of Strasburg, 
1582. Opus mallei consists simply in dotting, with a 
pointed hammer, the design into the plate. For forty 
years, this method of engraving has been much used 
in Germany and England, but principally in connection 
with the mode of engraving by means of the crayon- 

5. GRAVURE DANS LE GOUT DU CRAYON ; OR, EN- 
GRAVING BY MEANS OF THE CRAYON. 

The graver cannot be used in this species of engrav- 
ing. Nitric acid is used, assisted by a rough instru- 
ment, made in the form of a roller. 



52 



ENGRAVING. 



There are four methods. 

1. When the wheel is used with one colour. 

2. With a wheel and colours not exceeding three ? 
in which case three different plates must be used, the 
white light being laid on last. 

3. With the addition of the method by opus mallei, 
which however is not done by a sharpened hammer, 
but by a kind of chisel in the form of a marling spike, 
which is struck with a hammer, and the work in this 
way is done with great facility. 

4. With the addition of nitric acid, which is used 
after the wheel. The wheels are of different sizes and 
fineness. This method of engraving has been carried 
to great perfection in England and Italy, especially by 
joining it with -the opus mallei. 

6. AQUA TINTA. 

This method of engraving consists in producing 
chemically a rough surface, and the proper lights and 
shades by mechanical or chemical means. Gum mas- 
tic is pulverized and put into a fine cloth, through 
which it is sifted upon the plate ; or a small chest may 
be taken, in which a quantity of fine dust of resin has 
been put in motion by means of a bellows. The plate 
is put into the chest, and kept there till it is covered 
with the dust, when it is taken out and heated. The 
heat causes the resin to crack, and thus an infinite 
number of particles are produced, which all adhere to 
the plate. This is called laying the ground. A var- 
nish is then laid on those parts intended for the light. 
A wall of wax is now built around the plate, and di- 



ENGRAVING. 53 

luted nitric acid is poured upon it, which immediately 
takes effect on those parts of the plate that are ex- 
posed ; or the acid may be applied with a pencil. 

This method of engraving was invented by Le 
Prince, a Frenchman, who kept it a secret for a long 
time, and sold his works for original drawings. The 
difficulty and disadvantages of this method of engrav- 
ing are, that no proofs can be taken to mark the pro- 
gress of the work, and it requires the utmost skill and 
address to perform it well. 

7. MARQUITIVE. 

This hardly deserves the name of a separate species 
of engraving, as it is merely painting in colours, on a 
plate engraved with the graver or with the nitric acid, 
so as to produce the effect of a picture. It was invented 
by Taylor, an English engraver. 

III. STEEL. 

The art of engraving on steel was invented by Mr. 
Perkins. 

A plate of steel is exposed to a white heat in a box 
of iron filings, which deprives it of a part of its carbon, 
and makes it soft. The subject is now engraved on 
it by means of the graver, or a mixture of acetic and 
nitric acid. After the engraving is finished, the plate 
is again exposed to a white heat, not however in iron 
filings, but in a box of animal charcoal. The steel 
thus unites with the carbon, which is contained in the 
charcoal, and becomes again hard. Steel plates are 
of peculiar value when a great number of impressions 
are wanted, on account of their hardness. 



I 

54 ENGRAVING. 

An impression may be transferred from a steel plate 
to a cylinder, which has been softened, and by making 
this hard, it may again be transferred to a plate, and 
the number of plates may thus be indefinitely multi- 
plied. 

Steel plates are sometimes prepared without the 
process of softening and hardening. They are then 
more durable than copper. 

PRINTING. 

Printing from copper plate is performed by a rolling 
press, which consists of a cylinder, made of wood, and 
a sliding platform. The plate is warmed by being 
placed upon a bed of coals, and the ink is applied to 
it by elastic balls. The ink is composed of a carbon- 
aceous substance and linseed oil, made thick by boil- 
ing. When all the lines or dots of the engraving are 
filled with ink, the plate is wiped as clean as possible 
without disturbing the ink in the cavities, after which 
it is placed upon the platform, and the paper upon it. 
An elastic substance of some kind is placed above and 
below. 

A turn of the cylinder causes the plate to pass 
under it, and thus it is subjected to a very strong 
pressure, which forces the paper into the cavities of 
the engraving, and thus the impression is taken. 



ENGRAVING. 55 



QUESTIONS. 

How man) 7 kinds of engraving are there ? 

What are they ? 

When was wood engraving invented? 

Is it probable that Laurentius engraved on wood? 

Describe the mechanical process of wood engraving. 

By whom was copper plate engraving invented ? 

What were the circumstances that led to the discovery ? 

How is the copper prepared ? 

Is there more than one method of engraving on copper ? 

What is the first ? 

What is the graver? 

Describe the process of this kind of engraving. 

What is the difference between line engraving and stippling ? 

What is the dry point ? 

What is the second method of engraving called? 

When was it invented ? 

What is the mechanical process ? 

Do the lines produced by etching resemble those done with the 

graver ? 
What is the third method called? 
Who was the inventor ? 

How have the Italians succeeded in this kind of engraving ? 
Has it been practised in this country ? 
Describe the process. 

What is the fourth method of engraving on copper called? 
Who was the inventor ? 
Describe the mechanical process. 

What is the fifth method of engraving on copper called ? 
What are the processes of this kind of engraving ? 
What is the name of the sixth kind of engraving ? 
Describe the process. 
What is the seventh called ? 
Describe the process of marquitive engraving. 
By whom was it invented ? 
Who was the inventor of steel engraving? 
What are advantages of steel plates ? 
Describe the process of copperplate printing. 



56 



LITHOGRAPHY. 

Lithography is the art of printing or taking im- 
pressions from stone. 

It was invented by Alois Senefelder, at Munich, 
about the year 1796. 

The father of Senefelder was an actor. It was his 
intention to have educated his son for the profession of 
law ; but this did not suit his taste ; and after his fa- 
ther's death, he attached himself to the theatre, and 
became an author. He was reduced in his circum- 
stances ; and being in search of some cheap way by 
which he might print his own works, he accidentally 
made the important discovery of this art. 

His mother requested him one day to make out a 
bill for washing clothes ; and not having paper at hand, 
he wrote the list of articles on a stone which he had 
prepared for the purpose of etching. Some time after, 
when he was about to erase the writing, the thought 
occurred to him, that by preparing the stone with aqua 
fortis, and applying printer's ink to it, it might be pos- 
sible to take impressions from it as from wood engrav- 
ings. He tried this and several subsequent experi- 
ments, and the result was the art of lithography. 

Senefelder at first made his discovery a secret ; but 
in 1799, the King of Bavaria gave him an exclusive 



LITHOGRAPHY, 



57 



privilege to practise his new art for fifteen years, after 
which he made no exertions to keep a knowledge of 
it from the world. 

The art was introduced into England about the year 
1802, and into France in 1807, by M. Andre, a mu- 
sical composer, who disposed of the secret to all who 
would purchase it for a given sum. His first attempts, 
however, at printing, were rather unsuccessful. 

Count Lasteyrie distinguished himself by his exer- 
tions to advance the art. He visited Germany for the 
purpose of acquiring information, and while there, he 
engaged a Mr. Engelman to study the art at Munich ; 
after which, in conjunction with several other gentle- 
men, he set up a lithographic establishment in Ger- 
many. 

In 1816, Mr. Engelman opened a printing establish- 
ment in Paris, where he soon had six presses in ope- 
ration. The art now assumed a considerable degree 
of importance, artists of, ingenuity turned their atten- 
tion to it, and daily improvements were made. Litho- 
graphy was first successfully practised in America by 
Mr. William Pendleton, about the year 1824. 

The stone used for lithographic drawing is a sort of 
calcareous slate, composed of the carbonate of lime 
with a small portion of iron. The best stone is found 
in the vicinity of iron mines ; it is usually of a bluish 
white colour, and of a fine grain. 

The best lithographic stones are found at Solen- 
holfen, a village upon the banks of the Danube. The 
country around abounds with them, and the place 
derives its greatest importance from this source of 



58 LITHOGRAPHY. 

traffic. The stones are found at the depth of ten or 
fifteen feet from the surface of the earth, in horizontal 
strata of various thicknesses. They can be easily split 
to the proper thickness, which is about two or three 
inches. They should be entirely free from veins and 
crystals. The stone that is found in England, France, 
and America, has not so fine a grain as that found in 
Germany, and therefore is inferior. 

The stones are prepared for drawing by having their 
surfaces made smooth and uniform. The lines are 
drawn by the artist with a composition made of tallow, 
wax, shell-lac, common soap, and lamp-black, the 
usual proportions of which are — tallow, 2 oz. ; shell- 
lac, 1 oz. ; soap, 1 1-2 oz. ; and lamp-black, I 1-4 oz. 
This composition, when undiluted, is formed into 
small rolls, and receives the name of crayon or graphic 
chalk. When diluted with water it is called lithogra- 
phic ink, and in this form it is applied to the stone by 
means of steel pens or camel's hair pencils. 

Drawings executed with the pen are much the 
most durable, and many more impressions can be 
taken from them, than from those executed by means 
of the chalk. 

It requires a good deal of skill in an artist to make 
a fine drawing on stone. The subject may be traced! 
on the stone with red chalk or a lead pencil, but it, 
must be done very lightly. When drawing, the artist 
must vary the pressure of the hand according to the 
tint which he wishes to obtain ; or he may obtain any 
gradation of tints by varying the thickness of the lines 
jo the distance at which they are placed from each 



LITHOGRAPHY. 59 

other. A scraper is used to erase all errors and to 
procure lights. 

When a drawing is finished, it is carried to the prin- 
ter, who pours upon the stone diluted nitric acid, which 
produces a chemical change upon its surface, and dis- 
charges the alkali of the soap which enters into the 
composition of the crayon and ink. This process is 
called etching. 

The stone is then covered with a solution cf gum 
arabic, which fills up the pores, and prevents the ink 
from spreading. 

Previous to printing, the stone is wet with water, 
which is absorbed by every part of it except that 
which has been touched by the composition, for grease 
will not unite with water, while all calcareous stones 
possess the property of imbibing fluids, except they be 
protected by oily substances. 

A roller is now charged with printing ink, and being 
made to pass over the stone, the ink readily adheres 
to the greasy lines of the drawing, but does not to 
those parts covered with water. The impressions are 
obtained in the same way as those from engravings. 
After each impression, it is necessary to wet the stone 
and apply the roller charged with ink. 

It will be seen that the process of obtaining prints 
by lithographic engravings, is much less mechanical 
than any other mode } for it is founded upon a judicious 
application of chemical principles. The printers' ink 
being oily, readily unites with the oily composition 
which has been applied to the stone in drawing, while 



60 LITHOGRAPHY. 

neither will unite with the water. These are the gen- 
eral principles upon which the art is founded. 

The number of impressions which can be taken from 
one lithographic drawing,' when executed with the 
crayon, may vary from 500 to 1500, according to the 
fineness of the tints. 

The art of lithography possesses many advantages 
over that of engraving. An engraving must be a copy, 
but a drawing on stone may receive many fine touch 
from the hand and skill of the artist. An impressic 
from a copper plate can be transferred to stone t 
pressure, and then be printed in the same manner ; 
if it had been originally drawn on the stone. Th 1 
process of transferring an engraving to stone is ex 
tremely simple. The engraving must be laid with it 
surface upon water, until it becomes thoroughly wet 
when it is taken and applied to the surface of the stone 
which has been prepared in the usual manner. A. 1 
equal pressure is now made by means of a roller, til 
the ink leaves the paper and adheres to the stone. 

The cheapness of lithographic prints brings then 
within the reach of all classes of society, and the works 
of authors which require embellishment, are by this 
art reduced in price. 



LITHOGRAPHY. 61 



QUESTIONS. 

What is lithography ? 

By whom was it invented? 

What were the circumstances that led to the discovery ? 
„When was the art introduced into England and France ? 
HfVTio first opened a large printing office in Paris ? 
^Vhen and by whom was the art successfully practised in America ? 

iVhere are the best stones found, and of what are they composed ? 

-flow are they prepared for use ? 

Of what are the crayons and ink made ? 

With which are drawings best executed ? 

Describe the principle upon which the art is founded. 

How are the impressions taken from the stone ? 

Are engravings ever transferred to stone ? 

How is this done ? 

What advantages does lithography possess over engraving ? 



62 



ARCHITECTURE. 

HISTORY. 

This, of all arts, is the most ancient, and was earliest 
brought to perfection. Men first dwelt in caves and 
forests. Necessity taught them to build huts and tents, 
according to the climate in which they lived, or the 
materials with which nature furnished them. 

Ancient authors mention three kinds of habitations : 
1. Caves, and in these lived the ancient inhabitants of 
Ethiopia. 2. Huts. " The Colchians, who lived in 
a land of forests, made huts of the trunks of trees 
placed close together, filling up the interstices with 
mud." 3. Tents. The inhabitants that lived in the 
latter led pastoral lives, like the patriarchs in the 
Scriptures, and the Arabians, Mongolians, and Upper 
Egyptians, in our own time. 

Experience gradually improved these rude dwell- 
ings to comfortable ones ; and when men became 
united into societies, and built cities, architecture be- 
came an art of luxury. We still see traces of its ori- 
gin in its most refined character. We see pyramids 
that look like mountains, domes that resemble caves, 
and colonnades and porticos no less shady, and some- 
times hardly less intricate, than woods. This art is, 
however, traced to some particular nation, generally to 



ARCHITECTURE. 



63 



Egypt, sometimes to Chaldea, and sometimes with all 
human improvements to India. It is enough for us to 
know, that it was carried to great perfection, and con- 
tinued at the height of its beauty, in Greece only, and 
that too, in the short period between Pericles and 
Alexander. 

The art was indeed carried to Rome, but it was 
carried captive. The Romans were a warlike nation, 
and thought only of conquest. They had too much 
superstition in their character to receive or improve 
the Grecian architecture. 

During the middle ages the art underwent many 
changes ; and in the ninth century, when every thing 
required protection, we see a hardy architecture intro- 
duced, with hideous thick walls and small windows 
and doors, which prove that its object was defence, 
not beauty. This is commonly called the Gothic 
style, although there were then no Goths except in 
the mountainous parts of Spain, and this style pre- 
vailed more or less throughout Europe. It was in 
truth a degenerate Roman architecture, as may be seen 
from the capitals and bases to the pillars, and the re- 
gular arches. In the tenth century, when the world 
grew peaceable, architecture was emancipated from 
the baronial style, but it returned neither to the Ro- 
man nor the Greek. 

It started into new and fantastical forms, set aside 
all massiveness and regular proportions, and took slen- 
der pillars, without capitals or bases, large tall win- 
dows, with acute arches at the top. This style, by 
another misnomer, was called modern Gothic ; but it 



64 ARCHITECTURE. 

was in fact German, as we may learn from the circum- 
stance that all the architects who wrought in it, in 
England, France, Spain, and Italy, were commonly 
Germans or their descendants. The great cathedral 
at Milan could not be finished in this style, till work- 
men were brought from Strasburg. 

We would also notice that about this time, 1000 
or 1050, commenced the perverse fashion of erecting 
towers and steeples, which, however much they may 
excite admiration at the wonderful skill and boldness 
of the artist, must nevertheless remain anything but 
beautiful. They at first stood separate from the church, 
as at the church of St. Mark, at Venice, and the great 
cathedral at Pisa. 

In 1200 — 1300, they were added to the buildings, 
and the fashion became so extravagant that one church 
often had three or four steeples. About the same time 
the architecture of Constantinople began to have an 
influence in Europe, as that was then the centre of all 
improvement. Peace gave an opportunity to the com- 
mercial states to flourish, and Venice took the first 
rank. The old church of St. Mark had been burnt 
down in 976, and the present one was began in 1071, 
by workmen brought for the purpose from Constanti- 
nople, and the new church partook almost precisely of 
the form and style of St. Sophia. 

In the twelfth century we find some better specimens 
of architecture ; still much of the architecture of the 
times consisted in erecting buildings out of the frag- 
ments of old works, of which the celebrated church of 
the Madonna del Popolo is a most imposing instance. 



ARCHITECTURE. 65 

In the thirteenth century the works of Vitruvius were 
discovered, and in the fourteenth and fifteenth centu- 
ries the style of architecture entirely changed. This 
change was effected by the influence of the rules laid 
down by that great master. The arts, however, never 
remain stationary ; and architecture had no sooner 
reached its meridian, than it began to decline. The 
first shock was given by that great genius, Michael 
Angelo, who could not submit to any rule, and in ar- 
chitecture he at once outstripped the modesty of nature 
and truth. His imitators went even farther than their 
master. 

The restoration of letters was attended by the re- 
storation of architecture. Brunaleschi was the first 
modern who distinguished the ancient orders and re- 
vived them. Bramante, who designed St. Peter's 
church at Rome, was his successor. He reverted to the 
ancient rules, and adopted the best taste in architec- 
ture, which was that of the age of Pericles. Palladio 
stands pre-eminent among modern architects. He 
established a style founded upon a correct taste, and 
worthy of the highest genius. Inigo Jones, by whose 
influence the English school of classical architecture 
took its rise, possessed the spirit and taste of Palladio. 
Whitehall and Greenwich are specimens of his skill. 

Sir Christopher Wren, who soon followed Jones, 
had equal taste and more science than any of his pre- 
decessors. He raised the second best edifice in the 
world, viz. St. Paul's church, London : St. Peter's 
church at Rome being allowed by all to be the grandest 
in the world. Jones and Wren have remained the 
greatest masters of the English school. 



66 ARCHITECTURE. 

In our country, where the inhabitants are distin- 
guished for their native enterprise and perseverance, 
there are many specimens of correct taste in the sci- 
ence of architecture. " The capitol at Washington is 
perhaps the greatest effort of our republic, in point of 
extent and workmanship, and reflects great credit on 
the talents of Mr Latrobe, the architect. The Penn- 
sylvania bank in Philadelphia, also from the designs 
of Mr Latrobe, is the most beautiful building on the 
continent, and is a perfect model of a Grecian temple. 
It has never failed to be universally admired for its 
symmetry and beauty." 

ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. 

Almost every country, where the arts have been 
carried to any, considerable degree of perfection, has 
had its own peculiar style of building. There are, 
however, Jive orders of architecture, which have been 
distinctly recognized for a long time. These are the 
Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite. 

Before we attempt to describe these orders, it will 
be necessary to explain their constituent portions. 

Every order is divided into three parts, which occu- 
py different heights. These are the pedestal, the 
column, and the entablature. 

1. The pedestal is the lowest part which supports 
the column, or it is that part on which the column 
stands. The pedestal is likewise divided into three 
parts, viz. the plinth, or lower part, the die, or mid- 
dle, and the cornice, or upper. 

2. The column is the middle portion, and is situated 
on the pedestal. A column is sometimes partly buried 



ARCHITECTURE. 



67 



in the wood, and is then said to be engaged. Pilasters 
are square or flat columns attached to the walls. Every 
column has three parts, a base, or lower portion, a 
shaft, or middle, and a capital, or upper. 

3. The entablature is the continuous portion that 
rests upon a row of columns. The lower portion of 
the entablature is called the architrave, the middle the 
frieze, the upper the cornice. 

The following cut explains the different parts. 




Entablature. 



Column. 



Pedestal. 



68 ARCHITECTURE. 



I. DORIC ORDER. 

This is the most ancient order of regular architec- 
ture. It is an immediate refinement upon wooden cabins. 
The columns represent the upright poles,, and the 
architrave the beam. The celebrated Parthenon at 
Athens is considered the standard model of this order. 
It is very massive, being only six diameters in height. 
It has no pedestals, and no base to the column. The 
capital is very plain, consisting of only one or two 
mouldings. In the entablature the architrave is very 
plain, the frieze is divided into portions by vertical 
projections, called tryglyphs, and under the tryglyphs 
is a row of small ornaments,, called guttce or drops. 
Between the tryglyphs is a small space where the 
sculpture was ma'de, called metope. Under the cornice 
is a projection immediately over the tryglyph, called 
the mutule. 

The following cut will show the places which those 
parts occupy in the entablature. 



rffiMte alBfiH 



— Frieze. 



Architrave. 



ARCHITECTURE. 



68 



The Romans adopted the Grecian Doric with some 
refinement, which, however, did not improve it. They 
added a base and two diameters to its height. The 
Doric order is at once distinguished by the tryglyph, 
which is found in no other. 

II. IONIC. 

This order had its origin soon after the Doric. It 
was originally eight diameters in height, afterwards 
eight and a half, and by the Romans was increased to 
nine. This order is characterized by its capital, being 
ornamented with a scroll called a volute. The Greeks 
had two of these on parallel sides, and on the others 
was the baluster. These volutes, according to some, 
are imitations of locks of hair adorned with flowers ; 
others say that the convolutions of a shell suggested 
the idea ; while according to others, they were in- 
tended to represent the horns of Jupiter Ammon. The 
entablature of the Ionic order is adorned with more 
mouldings than the Doric. 

III. TUSCAN. 

There is no ancient specimen of the Tuscan order 
extant, and all our knowledge of it is obtained from 
Vitruvius. It differs from the Doric in being seven 
diameters high. The base and capital are plain, and the 
entablature is ornamented with low running surfaces. 

IV. CORINTHIAN. 

This order is ten diameters in height, and is more 
slender and ornamental than either of the others. Its 



70 ARCHITECTURE. 

capital is richly ornamented, and is made in imitation 
of the leaves of a plant, (the acanthus.) It has been 
compared to an inverted bell, the bottom of which is 
adorned with leaves and the top with volutes. 

v. COMPOSITE. 

This order is supposed to have been invented by the 
Romans, more for the sake of pleasing their vanity than 
for its use. It is a compound of the Corinthian and 
Ionic. It has the proportions of the Corinthian, and 
the volutes of the Ionic. Its shaft resembles the Co- 
rinthian, and its entablature the Tuscan. The Co- 
rinthian capital has three rows of leaves, the composite 
but two. 

BASE. 

Each order has its appropriate base ; but there is 
besides an attic base which we commonly see under 
Ionic columns. 

Attic is the space between two rows of columns, 
when one row is placed above another. 

Rustic-work is an imitation of rough stone, which 
in general has a good effect. It must never, however, 
be joined with the light orders of architecture. 

Pedestals should be used with columns as seldom as 
possible, for in this way they lose all their force and 
effect ; but under statues they are a great aid in pro- 
ducing effect. Pedestals should be made one fourth 
the height of the shaft of the column when used. 



ARCHITECTURE. 71 



PILASTERS. 

These are square columns. When standing alone 
their effect is not good, but in corners where one half 
of them can be sunk, the effect may be fine, and they 
are of use. 

PRINCIPLES OF ARCHITECTURE. 

Every building should be substantial, convenient, 
and beautiful. What is meant by convenience and 
strength is not doubtful, but respecting architectural 
beauty there is a variety of opinion. Four circum- 
stances, however, appear to be necessary. 

1. Ornament, which consists of whatever is added to 
the simple walls, whether pillars, pannels, or any thing 
else. 

2. Symmetry, or a just relation of the parts to the 
whole. 

3. A correspondence of the parts to one another ; 
for example, if there are six windows in one wing of a 
house there should be six in the other. 

4. Appropriateness or distinctness of character, so 
that from the form, the object of the building may be 
at once inferred. 

ONE ORDER ABOVE ANOTHER. 

When one order is placed above another, it is evi- 
dent that the heaviest should be placed below, and the 
lightest above. 



72 ARCHITECTURE. 



TWO COLUMNS TOGETHER. 

This is against good taste, and yet in the Louvre in 
Paris, the effect which they produce is said to be very 
fine. 

ART OF CONSTRUCTION. 

This consists in a knowledge of the sciences of car- 
pentry and masonry. 

" The science of carpentry comprehends the sizing, 
cutting, disposition, and joining of timber." 

The science of masonry enab]es one to construct 
walls and vaults in such a manner as to resist in the 
best way the greatest possible amount of force, and 
remain the most permanent. A knowledge of che- 
mistry is also necessary, that the qualities of the 
materials used in the construction of buildings may be 
known. 



QUESTIONS. 

What first taught men to build huts and tents ? 

How many kinds of habitations do ancient authors speak of? 

What were they ? 

To what nation is the origin of the art traced ? 

In what country was it carried to its greatest perfection ? 

What was the character of the architecture in the ninth century? 

What is this style usually called ? 

What was its character in the tenth century ? 

What was this style called ? 

At what time did the fashion of erecting steeples commence ? 

How were they placed ? 



ARCHITECTURE. 73 

What was the architecture of the twelfth century ? 

What served to change the style in the thirteenth century ? 

Who was the first modern architect that distinguished the ancient 

orders ? 
Who designed St. Peter's church ? 

Through whose influence did the English school take its rise ? 
What great architect followed Jones ? 
What building did he raise ? 
What is the greatest cathedral in the world ? 
What noted buildings in the United States are mentioned ? 
Of what style of architecture is the bank at Philadelphia ? 
Who was the architect ? 
How many orders of architecture are there ? 
How is every order divided ? 
What is the pedestal ? 
How is it divided ? 
What is the column ? 
How is this divided ? 
What are pilasters ? 
What is the entablature ? 
How is it divided ? 
Give an account of the Doric order. 

Describe the Ionic. « 

The Tuscan. 
The Corinthian. 
The Composite. 
What is the attic base ? 
What is rustic-work ? 
When may pedestals be used ? 

What points are to be regarded in the construction of every building ? 
What is necessary to constitute architectural beauty ? 
Should two columns be placed together ? 
In what does the art of construction consist ? 
What does the science of carpentry teach ? 
What that of masonry ? 



74 



HEATING AND VENTILATING. 

The art of producing and distributing heat is per- 
haps one of the most useful of all arts, so far as it 
regards our comfort and our health. 

That the temperature of rooms may not be increased 
to a higher degree than is conducive to health, and 
that the atmosphere may not become deteriorated by 
confinement, and thus be rendered unfit for respiration, 
means have been contrived to admit fresh air at the 
same time that the heating process is going on, and 
this has been called ventilating. 

MEANS OF DISTRIBUTING HEAT. 

A heated body communicates heat in two ways; 
viz. by contact, and by radiation. If a warm substance 
comes in contact with a cold one, the latter absorbs 
heat from the former until both become of the same 
temperature. 

If heat be applied to water, it is changed into va- 
pour ; if applied to wood, combustion is produced ; 
and if applied to solids, they are changed into fluids. 

Heat, when radiated, passes through gaseous bodies 
without essentially increasing their temperature ; but 
it warms solid substances exposed to its action, and 
these impart it by contact to gaseous bodies. The 



HEATING AND VENTILATING. 75 

heat from the sun, and that which we feel when we 
approach a fire, is radiated. 

All apartments are warmed either by radiation or by 
heated air. 

A person exposed to the radiated heat of an open 
fire, is imperfectly warmed, for only one portion of 
his body can feel the effects of it, while the other re- 
ceives the current of air which rushes in to supply the 
place of that which is heated and has ascended. 

FIRE-PLACES AND STOVES. 

The heat obtained from a common open fire-place 
is radiated heat. The chief object, therefore, in the 
construction of them, should be to build them of such 
materials as will radiate the greatest possible amount 
of heat. Substances do not radiate much until they 
acquire a red heat ; hence a fire should always be con- 
structed in such a manner as to burn clear, and expose 
as much surface as possible. Fire-places should like- 
wise be made of such materials as are slow conductors 
of heat, for the worst conductors are the best radiators, 
else that which should be radiated would be expended 
on the walls. Iron is a rapid conductor of heat, and 
therefore should not be used. Fire-bricks are slow 
conductors, and answer a good purpose for radiating. 

The chief loss of heat in open fire-places is caused 
by the warm air ascending the chimney. An attempt 
has been made to guard against this, by contracting the 
mouth of the chimney, and by bringing the mantle 
near to the fire. 



76 HEATING AND 

Dr. Franklin and Count Rumford exercised their 
ingenuity on the subject of heating and ventilating. 
Dr. Franklin made an apparatus of cast iron, which 
received the name of Franklin's stove. The flue in 
this stove ran in a very circuitous manner, and was 
intersected by air passages, so that most of the heat 
was retained in the room, at the same time that a 
quantity of fresh warm air was admitted. 

Count Rumford recommended that fire-places should 
be made with an advanced back, so as to bring them 
into the room as much as possible, and at the same 
time to narrow the flue of the chimney, in order to 
prevent the escape of warm air. The sides of the fire- 
place were to be made oblique, so as effectually to ra- 
diate the heat. The double fire-place, which is a 
modification of Franklin's plan, is a very convenient 
one for common apartments. A fire-place is made of 
soap-stone, and placed within a common open one, 
with a space left between them. There is no commu- 
nication bet weed this space and the fire, but it has two 
openings, one at the bottom, which communicates with 
the external air by means of a tube, and one at the top, 
which opens into the room, and through which the 
warm air passes. The one that enters the room in 
this way ventilates it, and supersedes the necessity of 
admitting cold air. 

DORIC FIRE-PLACE. 

A fire-place bearing this name has been constructed 
by the Rev. J. Pierpont, of Boston, which possesses 
many advantages over any other now in use. It is 



VENTILATING. 77 

made of cast iron and fire-brick, the former forming 
the case, and the latter the part which comes in con- 
tact with the fire. It can be placed either within the 
jambs of a common fire-place, or it can be used in 
rooms that have none. It is ornamented by Doric 
pillars, which have a fine effect, and a vase is placed 
on the top for the purpose of holding water, by the 
evaporation of which a disagreeable dryness of the 
atmosphere is prevented. It is constructed and ar- 
ranged upon the principles of ventilating, at the same 
time that it heats the room. The air from without the 
room is admitted by means of an opening into a cham- 
ber, which is formed by a layer of brick on the inner, 
and a plate of iron on the outer side. The heat is 
communicated to the air in this chamber by means of 
bricks, which come in contact with the burning coal 
contained in the grate. When the air is hot, it rises 
to the top of the chamber, and passes into the room 
through openings made for the purpose. The cham- 
bers are of sufficient size to hold, and the sides are of 
sufficient extent to heat, that quantity of air which is 
necessary to supply the loss of that which supports 
combustion and carries off the smoke. The anthracite 
coal burns perfectly in this fire-place without the assis- 
tance of a blower. The flue is narrow, but the draft 
of air is sufficient to carry off* all the smoke, gas, or 
whatever noxious substance may be generated during 
combustion. This fire-place possesses the double ad- 
vantage of being portable, and of communicating heat 
both by radiation and by contact. 



8a 



78 



HEATING AND 



The following plate will shew the form, and convey 
a general idea, of this fire-place. 




There is a great variety of stoves, and they differ 
from fire-places by being close and excluding the fire 
from sight. The heat given out by them is commu- 
nicated to the air of the room both by contact and by 
radiation. They have one opening at the bottom of 
the door, for the admission of air in order to support 
combustion, and a narrow funnel is attached to them, 
through which the smoke passes. 



VENTILATING. 79 

Houses that are warmed by stoves are never well 
ventilated, but the air remains in them stagnant and 
dry, which is very injurious. 

They are useful in large rooms, and in public build- 
ings that are not constantly inhabited. 

When coal is used for fuel, grates are found more 
convenient than fire-places. Mr. Burns' grate is con- 
sidered the best. It is so constructed as to admit the 
external air through an opening at the bottom, which 
supplies the fire with oxygen, and furnishes a current 
up the chimney. The air in the room is in conse- 
quence allowed to remain almost stationary, and is 
quickly heated. 

It is difficult to warm large apartments by means of 
radiated heat. Steam has been used for heating rooms, 
and is considered a convenient and effectual means 
when properly applied. 

Steam can be conducted to any part of a building by 
means of pipes, with facility and safety. A boiler may 
be prepared with a safety valve and other necessary 
apparatus. Pipes may lead from this to all parts of a 
building. When heat is applied to the boiler, and the 
water with which it is filled is heated to ebullition, the 
steam rushes into the pipe and drives out the atmos- 
pheric air, which is allowed to escape by means of a 
valve. When the steam comes in contact with the 
cool surface of the pipe, it is condensed, and the latent 
heat thus set free is communicated to the air of the 
room through which the pipe passes. A quantity of 
water is formed by the condensation of the steam, and 
this is returned to the boiler by means of separate 



80 HEATING AND 

pipes. The air of the room and the surface of the 
pipe must remain at a degree of temperature less than 
212, otherwise the steam will not condense, but remain 
in a state of vapour. 

Many public and private buildings are warmed by 
means of heated air. Air, when heated or rarified, 
becomes lighter than when it is cold, and consequently 
it ascends. Upon this principle, when air is heated in 
a cellar, it can be carried to any part of a house by 
means of pipes or flues. When this method of heating 
a house is adopted, a large stove of the best construc- 
tion is placed in the cellar, and flues lead from this to 
the various apartments. The stove is inclosed in a 
brick chamber, the walls of which are double. The 
space between the stove and inner wall should not ex- 
ceed one inch, that the air may come as nearly in con- 
tact with the former as possible, without preventing 
the circulation. The air should not come from the 
cellar, but should be admitted from without the build- 
ing. It is communicated to the air chamber between 
the two walls by means of tubes. These tubes enter 
the lower part of the chamber, and the air coming im- 
mediately in contact with the stove is heated, and 
ascends to the upper part, where the flues which lead 
to the apartments are situated. The flues where they 
open into the rooms are furnished with valves, and 
thus the temperature can be regulated, and the heat 
distributed at pleasure. Almost all hospitals, infirm- 
aries, and large public buildings that require to be kept 
warm constantly, are heated by this method ; and it has 
many advantages over common fire-places and stoves. 



VENTILATING. 81 

1. When there are many apartments to be warmed, it 
is less expensive. 2. The heat can be more equally 
distributed. 3. It has the double advantage of heating 
and ventilating ; for the warm air rushing in displaces 
or drives out the cold, and thus a constant circulation 
is maintained. In rooms warmed with open fire-places, 
the cold air necessary to ventilate them properly, rush- 
ing in, drives the warm air up the chimney. 



VENTILATING. 

Every building should be so constructed as to admit 
of being properly ventilated ; but it is desirable, for 
domestic economy, that no more heated air should 
escape than is necessary to preserve a pure atmos- 
phere. It is known that in order to preserve our 
health, we must breathe a pure atmosphere, an at- 
mosphere that contains a certain proportion of oxygen. 
Every man consumes about 32 cubic inches of oxygen 
in a minute, and in return for this, the same quantity 
of carbonic acid gas is expired from the lungs. A man 
likewise gives off, by insensible perspiration, 15 grains 
of vapour per minute. Candles, lamps, &tc. consume 
a great quantity of oxygen. " It has been ascertained 
that a single candle will render unfit for respiration 
200 cubic inches of atmospheric air." There are va- 
rious other causes that serve to contaminate the air of 
rooms, and make it necessary to ventilate them freely. 
Carbonic acid gas and nitrogen are the principal gases 
that are necessary to be removed by ventilation. 



82 HEATING AND 

These gases when mixed with vapour become lighter 
than atmospheric air, and therefore rise to the top of 
the room, where an opening should be left for their 
escape ; at the same time fresh air should enter in an 
opposite direction. 

When rooms are warmed by heated air, they are 
usually well ventilated by it. Rooms with open fire- 
places are usually well ventilated ; but they are so at 
the expense of a considerable loss of heat. Hospitals 
and large buildings warmed with air, should likewise 
be furnished with fire-places, that the air may circulate 
freely through them. 

OF CONFINING HEAT. 

When heat is ,to be conducted some distance, it is 
a subject of interesting inquiry, how this can be effected 
with the least possible loss. 

Those substances that are non-conductors of heat 
should be selected to line the pipe. Pounded lime, 
charcoal, ashes, wood, cork, pumice-stone, &c. are 
not good conductors of heat. Bricks, when dry, are 
also slow conductors ; but they have a powerful affi- 
nity for water, and their conducting power increases in 
proportion to the moisture which they contain. 

Double windows are sometimes used to prevent the 
escape of heat. Glass is a good conductor ; but if a 
stratum of air fills the vacant space between the two 
layers, the conducting power is very much diminished. 
Woollen or cotton cloth confines heat effectually when 
of an open texture. If the steam pipe be placed 
within another pipe, and the intermediate space be 



VENTILATING. 83 

filled with some non-conducting substance, but a small 
portion of heat will be lost. 

PRINCIPLES OF DRYING. 

Drying consists in the application of so much heat, 
as to convert the moisture of a body into vapour. The 
direct application of a high temperature is perhaps the 
best method of drying goods of- a light texture. 

Pulverized substances should be kept in motion 
when heat is directly applied. If a partial vacuum be 
produced, the direct application of heat will be more 
effectual. There is a strong affinity between atmos- 
pheric air and moisture, and in proportion as the air is 
increased in heat and dryness, its disposition to absorb 
moisture is also increased. In exposing goods to the 
air and to heat, the greatest possible surface should be 
exposed. If the surface be double, it will require 
nearly twice as long to dry them as when single. 
Goods of a thick texture should be exposed to a lower 
degree of heat than those that are thin ; for if a high 
degree of heat be directly applied to them, the drying 
is apt to be superficial, and they have a very harsh 
feel. 

Steam has been employed with great advantage in 
drying grain, gunpowder, paper, white-lead, peat for 
fuel, &c. 



84 HEATING AND VENTILATING. 



QUESTIONS. 

Is the art of producing and distributing heat a useful one ? 
How is heat communicated ? 
When heat is applied to water what is the result ? 
What when applied to wood, and to solids ? 
How are gaseous bodies affected by radiated heat ? 
How are apartments warmed ? 
How are rooms heated from open fire-places ? 
What object should be in view in the construction of fire-places ? 
What is the cause of the chief loss of heat? 

Who first turned their attention to the subject of heating and ven- 
tilating? 
What was Count Rumford's plan ? 
What Dr. Franklin's ? 
How is the double fire-place made ? 
How the Doric ? 
What are stoves ? 

How is heat communicated from them ? 
Are houses warmed by stoves usualy well ventilated ? 
When coal is used, what apparatus is used ? 
When rooms are heated with steam what is the process ? 
How are buildings warmed with hot air ? 
What advantage has this mode over any other? 
What is the object of ventilating rooms ? 
How is this best effected ? 

How is heat best confined, or what method should be taken ? 
What are the principles of drying? 
How should heat be applied to the different textures ? 



85 



MANUFACTURE OF GLASS. 

Glass is a compound of silex, or silecious earth, a 
fixed alkali, and a metallic oxide. 

These, when melted together, may be made to as- 
sume any shape, and if suddenly cooled, retain the 
transparency and the properties of glass. The vitreous 
quality of the glass depends upon the fusibility of 
the mixture and the suddenness with which it is cool- 
ed. If melted glass be allowed to cool slowly, the 
different tendencies of the constituent parts to assume 
a solid at different degrees of temperature, cause 
them to separate successively into crystals. The 
first ingredient, or that which forms the basis of glass? 
is silex. Silecious sand is usually employed, for it 
is already in a pulverized state. This sand is found 
in Italy, the West Indies, and near Philadelphia. It 
must be entirely free from all oxides, as iron, he. In 
England the pure flint is used ; the flint is heated and 
immersed in water, which reduces it to a coarse pow- 
der ; this is ground and sifted. 

The alkalies which are used, are potash, soda, pearl- 
ashes, &c. ; the last is used only for the finest glass. 
Sometimes a little lime or borax is added to the alkali. 

The oxides used are those of lead, manganese, cobalt, 
arsenic, &c. The oxides render the glass more fusi- 
ble, soft, and heavy, and increase its refracting power. 
9 



bb MANUFACTURE OP GLASS. 

They likewise communicate certain colours to the 
mass — thus blue glass is formed by the oxide of cobalt; 
green, by that of copper or iron ; violet by manganese ; 
red by a mixture of oxides of copper and iron ; pur- 
ple by gold ; white by arsenic, or zinc ; and yellow by 
the oxide of silver. 

In making glass, the materials of which it is composed 
are united in proper proportions and are completely 
fused ; in this state the mixture is called a pit. The 
pit is removed to large pots made of clay, and is there 
exposed to a degree of temperature that will com- 
pletely melt it. It generally requires forty-eight hours 
to render it fit for working. 

GLASS BLOWING. 

The operation is a simple one : the workman has a 
tube of iron, one end of which he dips into a pot 
of melted glass, and moves it about till a sufficient 
quantity of the glass adheres to it. He then applies 
his mouth to the other end, blows, and the air entering 
into the body of the glass expands it into a hollow 
globe. Various instruments are then used to bring 
it into shape for domestic purposes. 

DIFFERENT KINDS OF GLASS. 

There are several kinds of glass, which are adapted 
to different purposes. The flint and plate glass are 
considered the best and most beautiful. 

The former contains a considerable portion of the 
oxide of lead. It has great power of refraction, and is 



MANUFACTURE OF GLASS. 87 

much used for making ornamental vessels ; it is soft, 
and therefore can be cut or ground into any shape. 

The plate glass is poured in a melted state upon a 
table covered with copper ; the plate is cast half an 
inch thick, and is ground down to a proper degree of 
thickness, when it is polished. The largest and best 
mirrors are made of plate glass. 

CROWN GLASS. 

This is used principally for windows ; the sand and 
the alkali predominate, and it is consequently hard and 
not easily fused — a little of the oxide of manganese is 
usually added, which gives it a purple tinge. Window 
glass is cut into squares by the diamond. 

BOTTLE GLASS. 

This is the cheapest and coarsest kind ; it consists 
of an alkaline earth combined with silica or alumine. 
No fixed alkali enters into its composition. The green 
bottle glass is made simply of lime, sand, and ashes ; 
the impure ashes, and an oxide of iron in the sand, 
produce the green colour. This glass is hard, strong, 
and not easily corroded. 

ARTIFICIAL GEMS. 

Artificial gems have become quite a branch of man- 
ufacture. The different colours are produced by the 
different oxides ; these artificial gems may be distin- 
guished from the real ones by being softer. It is im- 
possible to cut or scratch a real gem ; they have like- 
wise less refractive power. 



88 MANUFACTURE OF GLASS. 



MIRRORS. 

Glass for mirrors, or pictures, is prepared by blow- 
ing it into cylinders, then cutting them open and flat- 
tening them, or by casting them upon a copper-plate. 
They are polished by rubbing two of them together ; 
mirrors are then made by silvering these glass plates on 
one side with an amalgam made of tin and quicksilver. 
The glass itself does not assist in giving a reflection, it 
only furnishes a smooth surface on which the amalgam 
may be laid, and prevents it from oxidizing and be- 
coming dim by excluding the air, 

The following is the method for laying on the amal- 
gam. A large stone with a flat smooth surface is co- 
vered with wet paper; a sheet of tin foil of the size of 
the intended mirror is laid upon the paper, and is co- 
vered with quicksilver which is made smooth with a 
brush. The plate of glass is then slid upon this, to 
carry off the superfluous mercury, and the whole is 
covered with a weight which is allowed to remain till 
the coating adheres. 

CUTTING. 

Glass is cut, or more properly ground, by applying 
it first to a common grindstone, and then to wheels 
coated with emery. It receives its final polish from 
putty, or from ashes. 



MANUFACTURE OF GLASS. 89 



QUESTIONS. 

Of what is glass made ? 

Upon what does the vitreous quality of the glass depend? 

What would be the effect if melted glass were allowed t o cool slowlj 

What forms the basis of glass ? 

What sand is used ? 

Where is it found ? 

What is used in England ? 

What are the alkalies used ? 

What are the oxides ? 

What purpose do the oxides answer ? 

How is blue glass formed ? 

How green ? 

How violet ? 

How red and purple ? 

How yellow? 

How is glass made ? 

Describe the process of glass-blowing. 

What kinds of glass are considered best ? 

What does the former of these contain ? 

What are its properties ? 

For what is it used 1 

How is plate glass made ? 

Of what kinds of glass are the best mirrors made ? 

For what is crown glass used ? 

What gives it the purple tinge ? 

What are the peculiarities of bottle glass? 

How are the colours in gems produced ? 

How is glass for mirrors prepared ? 

Why are they silvered ? 

How is this done ? 

How is glass cut? 



90 



POTTERY. 

This is the art of making earthen-ware. The 
combination of silex with alumine forms the basis of 
all pottery ; and the addition of various proportions of 
other earths with metallic oxides, form the different 
varieties. 

Silex and alumine possess the properties of great 
ductility and plasticity, the former when fused, and the 
latter when cold. The former becomes transparent 
when subjected to heat, and the latter opaque ; and 
the combination of both produces semi-transparency. 
The value and beauty of the ware depends upon the 
purity of the materials which compose it. 

Porcelain is the finest kind of earthen-ware, and 
from the circumstance of its being once manufactured 
in China only, it has received the name of China- 
ware. It is now manufactured in France, England, 
and Germany. It differs only from the coarser kinds 
of earthern-ware, in the materials of which it is com- 
posed, and the care with which they are prepared. 
The alumine communicates tenacity and ductility to 
the mass, and the silex gives it the hardness and in- 
fusibility. The proportion of silex, in good porcelain, 
forms, at least, two-thirds of the composition. Mag- 
nesia is of utility in the mixture, for it renders the 
silex and alumine less apt to contract, when baked. 



POTTERY. 91 

In the manufacture of porcelain, the ingredients are 
first washed and dried, and then they are ground by 
means of a mill to a very fine powder. This is mix- 
ed with water and made into a paste, which is formed 
into vessels. These are baked in earthen pots, till 
they acquire a considerable degree of hardness and 
consistency, when they are glazed. 

Inferior kinds of porcelain are prepared in the same 
manner, but of coarser materials. 

The best kinds of stone-ware, are made of white 
clay and pounded flint. This is glazed by the appli- 
cation of common salt, which is thrown into the fur- 
nace when it is very hot. The salt is converted into 
a vapour, and the alkali which it contains combines 
with the silex, and forms a glazing which is superior 
to all others, for it is insoluble in acids. The yellow 
stone-ware is glazed by dipping it in water, in which 
is suspended a mixture of pounded flint, glass, and 
oxide of lead. 

The glaze for the cream-coloured pottery, (such as 
that of Wedgwood ware) is formed of white lead, Cor- 
nish-stone, and flint. 

The jasper pottery was invented by Mr Wedgwood. 
It is extremely beautiful, and is composed of blue and 
porcelain clay, Cornish-stone, flint, and a little gyp- 
sum, tinged with cobalt. 

The cheapest kind of pottery is made of pure clay, 
which turns red on burning, because of the oxide of 
iron which it contains. This is usually glazed with 
the oxide of lead. The deleterious effects which arise 
from the use of lead, in the manufacture of domestic 



92 POTTERY. 

ware, are well known. Acids, when they come in 
contact with it, unite with it and form a mineral poi- 
son. 

All articles of pottery that are ornamented with one 
colour, or more, are either printed with the pencil, or 
receive their impression from copper-plate. This co- 
louring takes place before the ware is glazed. The 
Chinese ware is coloured by means of a pencil, but 
the Liverpool ware by engraving. 

An engraving is made on copper, and an impression 
is taken off on paper, with the appropriate ink. The 
paper being wet, is then applied to the ware, and 
made to come in contact with every part of it. The 
paper is then either raised, and the impression re- 
mains, or is left ' on, and is burnt when the ware is 
placed in the kiln. 

Embossed ornaments are cast separately, and are 
put on after the colouring. 

The object of glazing, is to render the ware im- 
permeable to liquids, and to hide any defects in its 
texture. The glaze that suits one composition of 
ware, will not suit another, owing to the difference and 
proportions of the materials. The component parts 
of the glaze should be carefully appropriated to the 
hardness and aensity of the ware. A good glaze, after 
being well baked, should be affected by heat or cold 
in exactly the same ratio with the clay ; else on a 
change of temperature, there would be a counterac- 
tion between the clay and glaze, which would pro- 
duce permanent mischief, and the ware become glaze- 
cracked. 



POTTERY. 



QUESTIONS. 



93 



What is the art of pottery ? 

What forms the basis of all pottery ? 

What the varieties ? 

What are the properties of silex and alumine ? 

In what states do they become transparent ? 

Upon what does the value and beauty of the ware depend ? 

What is porcelain ? 

What other name has it ? 

Where is it made ? 

How does it differ from coarser kinds 1 

What is the proportion of silex in good porcelain ? 

Of what benefit is magnesia ? 

How is porcelain manufactured ? 

Of what are the best kinds of stone-ware made ? 

How is it glazed ? 

Describe the manner in which it is done. 

How is the yellow stone-ware glazed ? 

Of what is the glaze for the cream-coloured ware made ? 

By whom was the jasper pottery invented ? 

Of what is it made ? 

Of what is the cheapest kind of pottery made ? 

With what is this glazed ? 

How are articles of pottery ornamented ? 

When must the colours be applied ? 

How is the China-ware coloured ? 

How the Liverpool ? 

How are impressions taken ? 

What is the object of glazing ? 

Does the same glaze suit all kinds of ware? 

Upon what principle should the glaze be made ? 



94 



DYEING. 

The art of dyeing, in its limited sense, consists in 
communicating some permanent colour to articles used 
in clothing. The series of operations which constitutes 
the art, is absolutely dependent upon the principles of 
chemistry. 

Colours are formed in the solar light ; the property 
which bodies possess of absorbing some rays, and of 
reflecting others, forms the various tinges of colour 
with which they are variegated, as has been found by 
actual experiments. 

We may consider, then, the art of dyeing in two very 
different points of view — for we determine the colour 
upon a body either by changing the form and disposi- 
tion of its particles, by subjecting it to some mechanical 
operation, or by transfering to the surface of a body 
some substance which possesses the property of reflect- 
ing the desired ray, or colour. This last is the effect 
produced by dyeing. 

HISTORY. 

This art is undoubtedly of great antiquity, for we 
read of coloured garments in the earliest records of 
history. The Egyptians were famed for their skill 
in the art of producing a variety of beautiful colours. 
According to Pliny's account of their manner of dyeing, 



DYEING. 95 

it very nearly resembles that practised at the present 
day. The art was but little practised among the 
Greeks till after the time of Alexander ; their com- 
munication with the Asiatics gave thein some taste, or 
a more extensive knowledge of the art, and they ma- 
terially improved the black, blue, yellow, and green 
dyes. 

The Venetians, who derived most of their power 
from their commercial pursuits, had abundant oppor- 
tunity in their intercourse with other nations, to acquire 
a knowledge of the arts ; accordingly the art of dyeing 
was early practised among them, and was carried to 
great perfection. Florence, in 1338, contained two 
hundred thousand manufacturers, who are said to have 
made from seventy to eighty thousand pieces of cloth. 
From Italy the art spread throughout Europe. 

The discovery of America furnished the means of 
obtaining some dyeing materials that had a decided 
superiority over any that were before known. Among 
the most valuable of these is the cochineal, a small in- 
sect. The preparations of alum and tin, which give 
great brilliancy to dyes, were not known among the an- 
cients. 

MORDANTS. 

The title of mordant, is applied to those substances 
which serve as intermedes between the colouring par- 
ticles and the articles to be dyed, either for the pur- 
pose of facilitating or of nullifying their combination, 
and by their means colours are varied, brightened, and 
made more durable. If it were possible to acquire a 



96 DYEING. 

sufficient number of colours, having a strong affinity to 
cloth, to answer all the purposes of dyeing, the art 
would be extremely simple and easy. There is, how- 
ever, scarcely a dye-stuff except indigo, which yields 
of itself a good colour sufficiently permanent to deserve 
the name of a dye. This difficulty is obviated by em- 
ploying an intermediate substance, which has a strong 
affinity both for the article to be coloured and the co- 
louring matter, and this is the principal purpose for 
which the mordant is used. Mordants are not always 
simple agents, but new combinations are sometimes 
formed by the ingredients which compose them. The 
following are the principle substances used as mordants : 
aluminous salts, lime, metallic oxides, sand, astringent 
substances, and animal matter. 

Formerly the sulphate of alum was the only substance 
used as a mordant, but of late the acetate of alum has 
been used with good effect, especially upon cottons 
and linens. 

Lime is the only earth besides alum, that is used in 
dyeing. Among the metallic oxides, that of tin is more 
frequently used and answers abetter purpose than any 
other ; it increases the brightness and fixidity of many 
colours. The neutral salts, sal ammoniac, nitre, and 
sea salt, act as mordants and modify colours. The infu- 
sion of nut-galls is an excellent mordant. 

Animal oil is used in dyeing the Turkey red ; cot- 
ton and wool would take colours better if they should 
undergo a similar preparation. 



DYEING. 97 



INFLUENCE OF AIR AND LIGHT ON COLOURS. 

Atmospheric air has the power of modifying colours, 
owing to the influence or action of the oxygen which 
it contains upon the colouring principle. When me- 
tallic oxides are used as mordants, the effect of the 
oxygen is twofold, as it acts upon the metal and upon 
the colouring principle at the same time. 

Light has the power of modifying colours, as it assists 
the combination of oxygen with the colouring prin- 
ciple. Different colours resist the action of oxygen, 
according as they are more or less disposed to unite 
with it. Oxygen may unite in small proportions with 
some colours without sensibly changing them. 

Indigo becomes green when united with an alkali, 
or metallic oxide ; but when it recovers a part of the 
oxygen which it has lost, it resumes its original colour. 

Colours generally are made better, or brighter, by 
their combination with oxygen ; accordingly, stuffs, 
when undergoing the process of colouring, are exposed 
more or less to the air and light. The blue colour giv- 
en to wool by the sulphate of copper and logwood, 
soon changes into a green by the action of the air, be- 
cause the copper which is blue, when combined with a 
small portion of oxygen, becomes green when combin- 
ed with a large portion. 



10 



DYEING. 



DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE PRO- 
DUCTS, SO FAR AS REGARDS THE ACTION OF OTHER 
SUBSTANCES UPON THEM. 

Wool and silk are the produce of animals, and all 
animal substances have a stronger disposition to unite 
with other substances, than vegetable. The alka- 
lies have a strong attachment for animal substances, 
but they have not for vegetables. Leys cannot be 
used in the process of dyeing animal substances ; nitre, 
and sulphuric acids, likewise have an injurious effect 
upon animal substances. Silk resists the action of al- 
kalies and acids better than wool. 

Cotton and' linen are vegetable productions, and 
they resist more effectually the action of acids and al- 
kalies than animal substances, and combine less per- 
fectly with the colouring principle. 

COLOURING PRINCIPLE. 

The colouring principle of vegetables is found in four 
different states of combination, each requiring different 
modes for extracting it. 1. With the extractive prin- 
ciple. 2. With the resinous. 3. With fecula. 4. 
With a gummy substance. 

When the colouring principle is combined with an 
extract, water is the proper solvent, and the articles 
to be coloured, after having been supplied with a mor- 
dant, have only to be plunged into a solution in order 
to receive their proper tinge. Logwood, cochineal, 
madder, he. are combined with extracts. 



DYEING. 99 

Resinous substances are soluble in spirits of wine ; 
such are the pharmaceutical tinctures, but these are 
used only in dyeing ribbons. 

The colouring principle when combined with fecula, 
is obtained by adding an alkali, or lime, to the solution ; 
acids sometimes are used. Instead of dissolving indigo 
by means of lime, it is sometimes dissolved by means 
of the oil of vitrol. " Lime is however the true sol- 
vent of indigo, but alkalies are the solvents for some 
substances of the same class. For example ; when it is 
required to make use of the colouring matter of saffron, 
the first proceeding consists in washing it in water, to 
clear it of the extractive and yellow principle, which 
is very abundant ; and the resinous principle is after- 
wards dissolved by means of an alkali, from which sol- 
vent it is precipitated on the stuffs by means of acids. 
In this manner it is that the poppy-coloured silk is 
made." 

When the colouring principle is found in combina- 
tion with resin, nothing more is necessary than to boil 
the article to be coloured in a decoction of the article 
which contains the colour. 



PREPARING ARTICLES TO BE COLOURED. 

In order that the colouring principle may unite per- 
fectly with an article, it must be w r ashed, bleached, and 
deprived of all glutinous matter, and impregnated with 
a mordant, which will fix the colour, and give it pecu- 
liar properties. 



100 DYEING. 



BLEACHING. 

The object of bleaching, is to render the articles to 
be coloured white, and to discharge from their fibrous 
textures the resinous substance with which they are 
naturally combined. Cotton and linen goods have to 
pass through a number of processes, before they are fit 
to be impregnated with a colouring substance. The 
principal of these are : 1st, steeping in an acid liquid, at 
the temperature of 100 degrees; 2d, boiling with an 
alkaline ley ; 3d, scouring, which is performed with 
sulphuric acid ; 4th, bleaching with chlorine, in which 
the goods are exposed to the action of chloride of lime. 

Woollen and silk goods are bleached by being ex- 
posed to the fumes of sulphur, after having been de- 
prived of their gummy substance. 

When a piece of goods has been bleached, it must 
be impregnated with a mordant, previous to the ap- 
plication of the dye. The mordant should be of such 
a nature, and combine so closely with the colour- 
ing principles, that none of the re-agents, such as wa- 
ter, soap, or any other substance used as proofs, should 
be able to extract it. It is necessary, therefore, that 
the mordant itself should be very white, that it may 
not alter the colour presented, that it should be in a 
state of extreme division, and that it should have a very 
strong affinity for the goods and the colour to be appli- 
ed. The goods are then passed through the dye, and 
the colour is precipitated on the mordant. 



DYEING. 



101 



QUESTIONS. 

What is the art of dyeing ? 
Upon what is this art dependent? 
How are colours formed ? 

In what views may we consider the art of dyeing ? 
What is the history of the art ? 
What are mordants ? 

Do colouring substances impart a permanent colour to cloth itself? 
How is this difficulty obviated ? 
Are mordants simple agents ? 
What substances are used as mordants ? 
What was formerly the only substance used ? 
What metallic oxides are used ? 
What salts are used ? 
Is animal oil ever used ? 

Has atmospheric air any influence in modifying colours ? 
Has light any influence ? 
Does oxygen have any influence ? 
Are leys used in dying animal substances ? 
Are acids used ? 

In how many states is the colouring principle found in vegetables ? 
What are they ? 

What are the methods of extracting it? 
What is the true solvent of indigo ? 
How are articles prepared for colouring ? 
What is the object of bleaching ? 

What processes do cotton and linen goods have to pass through, be- 
fore they are ready to be coloured ? 
How are woollen and silk goods bleached ? 



102 



TANNING. 

Tanning is the art of manufacturing leather from 
raw hides. 

The process of tanning differs among different ar- 
tists, but the principles upon which the art is founded 
are the same. Leather, by tanners is divided into three 
kinds ; viz. butts or basks, skins, and hides. Butts 
are the stoutest, or such as are used for soles of shoes.. 
Hides are made of cow skins, or thin ox skins, and are 
used as upper leather. Skin is the common term for 
the skin of calves, hogs, goats, he 

BUTTS. 

The process for tanning the butts is as follows: — 
The horns are removed from the hides, and a num- 
ber of them are laid in a heap, where they are allowed 
to remain a few days. They are then removed to a 
close room, which is kept warm and moist, and hung 
on poles for a few days, or until the process of putre- 
faction has commenced, which loosens the hair, and that 
is removed or scraped off with a crooked knife, They 
are now put into pure water, till the loose flesh can 
be easily removed, which is done by a knife called the 
flesh knife, when laid across a sort of beam or wooden 
horse. The hides are then placed in a vat, which is 
filled with a liquor called ooze, made of water and oak 
bark. After they have remained there some time, they 



TANNING. 1 03 

are removed to another vat filled with water, either 
impregnated with sulphuric acid, or with an acid made 
from rye or barley, which is called rinsings. This 
has the effect to open the pores of the hides, and they 
will therefore imbibe more readily the ooze, or as- 
tringent properties of the bark, which have the effect 
to constringe the hides. The hides are removed from 
the scouring vat, and placed in a vat with a layer of bark 
between each hide. They are then allowed to remain 
two or three months without being disturbed ; at the 
expiration of which time, they are placed in vats with 
false bottoms, so that the saturated water can be drawn 
off, and fresh water added, without disturbing the 
hides, or removing the bark. The hides, however, 
are removed from and replaced in these vats several 
times, before they are sufficiently tanned. 

The whole process of tanning requires from one to 
two years, according to the substance of the hides. 
When removed from the vat, the hides are hung on 
poles and dried ; after which, the grain is pressed down 
by means of a brass pin, and they are beaten smooth 
with a wooden beetle. 

The skins of calves, goats, dogs, &c, are put into 
a vat, which contains water saturated with lime. 
They are removed and again replaced every third or 
fourth day for a few weeks, or until the pores are 
sufficiently dilated, and the hair easily removed. The 
hair is removed by a scraper, and the hides are then 
placed in a strong alkaline ley, until they are deprived, 
with the assistance of several times scraping, of all 
their greasy substance. They are first put into weak 
ooze, but gradually removed to stronger and stronger, 



104 TANNING. 

till at last they are placed in a vat with a layer of bark 
between each hide, where they are allowed to remain 
two or three months or longer, according to their sub- 
stance. 

The skins are afterwards dressed and blacked by 
the currier, and used for the upper leather of boots, 
shoes, he. 

The process of tanning hides does not differ much 
from butt-tanning. 

It is the object of the artist in tanning, to clean the 
hides as thoroughly as possible ; to remove all the hair 
and saponaceous matter, and to open their pores, so 
that every fibre may be acted upon by the astringent 
properties of the bark. All this must be done, or the 
process is imperfect ; for the wear of the leather de- 
pends entirely upon the manner in which it has been 
tanned. Oak bark is generally preferred to any other 
in the art of tanning, on account of its superior as- 
tringency ; but in this country the bark of the hemlock 
is sometimes substituted. 



QUESTIONS. 

What is the art of tanning ? 

How is leather divided ? 

What are butts ? 

What are hides ? 

What are skins ? 

Describe the process of tanning butts. 

How long a time is required to tan butts ? 

What are done with hides when removed from vats ? 

Describe the process of tanning skins. 

What is the object of tanning? 

What bark is generally used ? 



105 



MANUFACTURE OF FIBROUS MATERIALS. 

PAPER. 

Paper is manufactured from rags, by the aid of 
machinery. It was formerly necessary to select, with 
great care, those rags only that were white and 
clean ; but within a few years it has been ascertained 
that the substance called chlorine, has the chemical 
power of destroying colours, and therefore it is exten- 
sively used in bleaching ; coloured rags, therefore, by 
being submitted to its action, can be rendered white 
and fit to be manufactured into paper. 

Rags, when carried to a paper-mill, are washed clean 
and laid in heaps, which are covered with sacking, till 
they sweat and rot. They are then reduced to a 
pulpy mass by means of complicated machinery. It 
was formerly the custom to take a small portion of 
this pulp, and place it in a sieve, of the size of the 
intended sheet, which was agitated by a workman, till 
it (the pulp) had settled regularly on its surface ; and 
this, when pressed and dried, constituted a sheet of 
paper. 

This inconvenient and unmechanical mode of ope- 
ration, has been superseded by ingenious machinery. 
The Messrs. Fourdrinier's invention is now principally 
used. This machine consists of a horizontal form of 
any required length, furnished with a cylinder at each 
end, over which is stretched a web of brass wire, of 



106 MANUFACTURE OF 

a requisite texture and fineness, for the paper about to 
be manufactured. At one end of the form is a trough, 
into which the pulp is received, and from which it 
passes through an opening that is regulated by a 
screw, and falls upon the web. The cylinder, when 
set in motion, moves the web, and at the same time 
imparts to it a tremulous motion, which arranges and 
disposes the pulp regularly over its whole surface. 
When the paper in this crude and wet state arrives 
at the end of the cylinder, it is taken up by another 
larger one, which is covered with felt or flannel, and 
thus it passes on into a heated room, through a series 
of rollers, till it is finally delivered to a reel and wound 
off in a coil. When the reel is full, it is withdrawn 
and cut on both sides, forming sheets of the same length 
and breadth of the machine and reel on which it is 
wound. The paper is then sized, which consists in 
immersing it in a solution of glue. This increases the 
strength of the paper and fills up the pores, so that 
ink, when applied to it, is prevented from spreading. 
It is now dried, pressed, and made into quires and 
reams. Blotting paper is not sized, and therefore it 
absorbs the ink, which spreads over its whole surface. 
Paste-board is made from coarse stuff not rotted. 

COTTON. 

Cotton is a fibrous vegetable substance, the pro- 
duct of the cotton-plant, which grows naturally in 
tropical regions, and is easily cultivated in temperate. 
When collected from the pod, the cotton is filled with 
seeds, which must be separated before it can be spun. 



FIBROUS MATERIALS. 107 

Formerly these seeds were separated by submitting the 
whole to an operation called lewing, which consisted 
in placing the cotton upon a square table, with holes 
cut in the bottom, and subjecting it to the repeated 
action of a lew, until the dust, seeds, &te. had escaped 
through the openings. 

At the present day, a machine called a gin is used 
for the purpose ; and it saves a vast amount of time 
and labour. Gins are of two kinds ; one is called a 
roller, and the other the saw-gin. The roller-gin con- 
sists of two hollow rollers, placed so near each other, 
that when the cotton comes within the line of their 
contact, they immediately seize it and draw it between 
them, while the seeds and other particles, not being 
able to pass through, fall into a box prepared to 
receive them. Motion is communicated to the roll- 
ers by means of a treadle and crank. The saw- 
gin is constituted upon the same principle, only saws 
are used, instead of rollers. With one of these gins 
a man will clean between thirty and forty pounds of 
cotton per day. 

When fine yarn is to be made, the cotton undergoes 
another process of cleaning at the manufactories ; but 
when the yarn is coarse, the preceding process is suffi- 
cient. 

There are three kinds of spinning, which differ ac- 
cording to the purposes to which the yarn is applied. 
These are mule, jenny, and water spinning. 

Mule spinning is by far the most perfect process, 
and is practised only when the finest yarn is to be 
produced. The cotton is prepared by hand, so as to 



108 MANUFACTURE OF 

deprive it of every impurity, and it is then submitted to 
the action of machinery, for carding, drawing, and 
twisting the thread, which is of too complicated a na- 
ture to be made plain, without expensive drawings 
and a long description. 

Jenny spinning is of a much earlier date, and a 
much less perfect process, than mule spinning. It is 
used but little, except for the manufacture of yarn for 
coarse cloth. 

Water spinning is unlike the mule and jenny. The 
carding and drawing machines are the same as those 
used for mule spinning ; but the spinning frame is up- 
on a different plan. 

WOOL. 

Wool is the well-known product of the sheep, one 
of the most useful of domestic animals. After the 
wool of a fleece has been properly assorted and wash- 
ed, it is submitted to the process of combing, which is 
either done by hand, or by machinery. The object of 
combing is to arrange the fibres as nearly parallel to 
each other as possible. After this, the wool is subject- 
ed to the machinery for carding and spinning. 

Wool spinning is of two kinds ; the worsted spinning, 
and the spinning of woollen yarn, which is wrought 
into clothes for personal wear, and is spun in a manner 
similar to cotton. 

SILK. 

Silk is the product of the silkworm, the larva of a 
small moth, called bombyx, a native of the East-Indies. 



FIBROUS MATERIALS. 109 

The egg which produces the worm is hatched by 
the influence of the solar heat, and the worm feeds on 
the leaves of the mulberry tree. 

When4t arrives at maturity, it spins for itself a small 
bag called the cocoon, to protect it during its aurelia, 
or inactive state. It continues in this state about 
fifteen days, when it becomes a moth, and if not pre- 
vented, eats its way through the cocoon. These co- 
coons are the substance we call silk ; and in order to 
secure it for the purpose of manufacturing, it is neces- 
sary to destroy the insect before it eats through ; else 
it will be impossible to wind it. 

The cocoons, preparatory to being wound, or reeled, 
are immersed in hot water, for the purpose of destroying 
the insect, and dissolving a natural gum, which unites 
the fibres of the silk together. The reeling is usually 
conducted by females, who, when the balls have re- 
mained a sufficient length of time in the hot water, 
rub them with a brush, to which the loose threads 
adhere. These they disengage, and clean them from 
the floss of silk which always surrounds the cocoon. 
The ends of the threads of several cocoons are joined 
together in reeling, for one thread alone would be unfit 
for the purposes of the manufacturer. 

Two or three of these threads, when wound and 
twisted together, form a strong thread for the weaver, 
who warps and weaves the silk into beautiful and use- 
ful articles, by a process similar to that of weaving 
cotton. 



11 



110 MANUFACTURE OF 



FLAX. 

Flax undergoes various processes after it is pulled, 
before it can be worked into fine cloth or thread, In 
the first place, it must be exposed to the weather till 
the outside bark or sheath will easily separate from the 
inner fibres. It is then submitted to the process of 
breaking. A flax brake is composed of several blades, 
or swords, shutting together somewhat like shears, for 
separating the bark from the plant. In performing the 
operation of breaking, the flax is held in the left hand, 
across the three under teeth or swords of the brake, 
and the upper teeth are with the right hand forcibly 
and repeatedly brought down upon it, till the whole 
stalk is broken into fragments. 

After the flax is well broken, it is laid across a 
smooth board, being held in the left hand, and a knife 
made of wood, which is held in the right hand, is 
brought with force obliquely upon it ; and this is re- 
peated till every particle of the woody substance is 
removed. It is then hatchelled, or hackled. A flax 
hackle is an instrument constructed for the purpose of 
laying the fibres of the flax parallel. It has many teeth 
fixed in a square flat piece of wood. When used, it is 
firmly fixed to a bench before a workman, who strikes 
the flax upon the teeth of the hackle, and draws it 
quickly from between them. Fine or coarse hackles 
are used, according to the quality of the flax. 

The flax is now prepared for spinning, which pro- 
cess is similar to that of spinning cotton or wool. 



FIBROUS MATERIALS. Ill 



QUESTIONS. 

O what is paper made ? 

What agent is used for bleaching it ? 

Describe the operation by which paper was formerly made. 

Describe the present process of making it. 

What does sizing consist in ? 

What is its object? 

In what does blotting paper differ from writing ? 

What is cotton ? 

How were the seeds formerly separated ? 

What is the present process? 

How many kinds of gins are there ? 

Describe them. 

What other cleaning does cotton undergo at the manufactories ? 

How many kinds of spinning are there ? 

Which is the most perfect ? 

What is wool ? 

Describe the process through which wool must pass before it is ready 

for weaving. 
How many kinds of wool spinning are there ? 
What is silk ? 

How are the threads separated from the cocoons? 
Are the threads used singly ? 

What processes does flax pass through before it is ready for spinning? 
Describe the flax brake. 
What is the hackle ? 



112 



REDUCTION OF METALS, AND USES TO 
WHICH THEY ARE APPLIED, 

IRON. 

Iron is generally found in nature combined with 
oxygen and earthy matter. It is the most universally 
diffused of all metals. It forms a constituent principle 
in the vegetable and animal kingdoms. It is hard, and 
susceptible of a very fine polish. Those places where 
iron is found in, abundance, are called iron mines. Iron 
is more universally used than any other metal. The 
ore, after it is obtained from the mines, is subjected to 
a process called roasting, which consists in laying the 
ore in strata with pit coal, which is set on fire, and the 
carbonic acid, or any other volatile substance with 
which it may be combined, is expelled. After roast- 
ing, it is carried to a blast furnace. The lower part 
of the furnace is filled with coke, and the ore is mixed 
with brimstone and fuel. A blast of air is urged 
through the furnace, the metal is brought into a state 
of fusion, and penetrates through the fuel, and is re- 
ceived into a reservoir prepared for that purpose. 
The metal is removed from this reservoir, and run into 
moulds made in sand. In this state it is called pig or 
cast iron. 

During the process of smelting, the oxygen which 
the ore contains unites with one portion of carbon, and 



REDUCTION OF METALS. 113 

the iron with another ; forming carbonic acid and car- 
buret of iron. The brimstone and the earths being 
much lighter than the metal, float upon the surface, 
and are allowed to pass off through an opening. 

PIG IRON. 

We have observed that the metal obtained from ore 
by the process of smelting, was called cast or pig iron. 
This is very impure and brittle, being united with 
carbon, oxygen, and sometimes with clay, silex, man- 
ganese, lime, &c; but it is rarely fused, and therefore 
may be cast in moulds of any form. Pig-iron is con- 
verted into malleable iron by depriving it of its carbon 
and other impurities. 

The pig-iron is laid upon coke, and is subjected to a 
very powerful blast. It is soon melted, and the metal 
is run into plates about 3 or 4 inches thick. When 
red, it is plunged into cold water, which makes it 
brittle and easy to be broken. The plates are then 
broken into small lumps, which are melted in what is 
called the puddling furnace, without the aid of an 
artificial blast. In this state it is moved about, and 
water is thrown on to keep it at a proper temperature, 
and to facilitate the escape of the carbon. The metal, 
after it has been subjected to this process for a certain 
time, loses its flaccidity and becomes hard. It is then 
removed from the furnace and placed under a large 
hammer, or subjected to the pressure of rollers. This 
process deprives it of many impurities, and it loses con- 
siderable in weight. If it be desirable to improve the 
quality of the iron after it is thus made soft and malle- 
11a 



114 REDUCTION OF METALS. 

able, it may be subjected to a similar process of heating 
and hammering several times in succession. 

IRON WIRE. 

Iron, when it is to be manufactured into wire, is re- 
duced in size, by means of a hammer or rollers, and is 
then drawn through a hole in a steel plate. It may 
be made of almost any size, by drawing it through 
successive holes, each smaller than the preceding, 
Wire made of other metals is manufactured in the 
same manner. 

STEEL. 

Iron, after it has once been deprived of its carbon, 
and rendered soft, malleable, and ductile, may again 
unite with it in certain proportions, and thus be con- 
verted into steel. Steel is made by taking malleable 
iron, and placing it in layers in a cementing pit. Each 
layer of iron is placed between two layers of charcoal. 
The whole is surrounded by a mixture of sand and 
clay, which prevents the combustion of the coal. Heat 
is now applied to the furnace which contains the pots, 
until the iron and coal become cemented, which usu- 
ally requires eight or ten days. Eight or ten days 
more are allowed for the whole to cool. It is now 
converted into steel, and when removed from the pots 
it is covered with small blisters ; and from this circum- 
stance. it has received the name of blistered steel. 

To make it more hard and tenacious, it is again 
subjected to the heat of the furnace, and to the action 
of the hammer. It is beat into thin rolls, and in this 
state it is called shear steel. 



REDUCTION OF METALS. 115 

Cast steel, which is better than shear steel, is made 
by melting blistered steel with some carbonaceous 
and vitreous substance. It is then formed into ingots 
or bars. 

TEMPERING. 

No metal has the power that steel has of changing 
its degree of hardness, by passing through different 
degrees of temperature. If steel be heated to a red 
heat, and then suddenly plunged into cold water, it 
becomes too hard and brittle for use; but if allowed 
to cool gradually, it partakes of the quality between 
ductility and hardness, which renders it fit for the uses 
to which it is to be applied. 

ALLOYS OF STEEL AND IRON. 

An alloy is a combination of one metal with another. 
Steel combines in certain proportions with silver, rho- 
dium, silicium, aluminum, and platinum ; and in com- 
bination with these it acquires an increased degree of 
hardness and toughness. 

The only useful alloy which iron forms with other 
metals, is that of tin. The tin plates of which the tin 
ware so extensively used is made, are thin sheets of 
iron coated with tin. The softest iron is chosen, and 
is beat into thin sheets, which are dipped into water 
mixed with muriatic acid. They are then heated, 
rubbed, and polished ; after which they are immersed 
in melted tin several successive times, till a sufficient 
coating is obtained. 



116 REDUCTION OF METALS. 



LEAD. 

Lead is one of the most fusible and ponderous of all 
metals. It is found, like other metals in nature, com- 
bined with earthy matter, or mineralized by sulphur, 
carbonic acid, he. In order to obtain the lead in a 
pure state, the ore is first pounded, then introduced 
into a reverberatory or smelting furnace. While the 
ore is in the furnace it is frequently agitated, that it 
may present all its surfaces to the air. When the 
external part begins to assume the form of paste, it is 
covered with charcoal, the mixture is stirred, and the 
heat increased. The lead now runs on all sides, and 
is collected on the bottom of the furnace, which is 
pierced with small holes, which permit the metal to 
flow into a receptacle properly defended by a lining of 
charcoal. The lead is then cast into pigs for sale. 
Lead is frequently, in fact almost always, found com- 
bined with small proportions of silver, and in this state 
it is brittle. To deprive it of this, it is subjected to 
the following process : it is carried to a refining fur- 
nace, and then by a strong heat, and the influence of 
a strong current of air, which is directed upon the lead 
by means of bellows, the metal is converted into an 
oxide, called litharge. This litharge is taken off as 
fast as it forms, and the silver remains in the middle of 
the cupel. The litharge is then fused in contact with 
charcoal. 

SHEET-LEAD. 

Sheets of lead are prepared by melting the ingots, 
or pigs of lead, and running them into a mould. 



REDUCTION OF METALS. 117 



LEAD PIPES. 

Lead pipes, which are much used for the purpose of 
conveying water, on account of the facility with which 
they can be bent and the joints soldered, are prepared 
in the following manner : 

" The lead is cast in an iron mould, upon a cylin- 
drical iron pipe, of a size proportioned to the bore of 
the pipe to be made, and leaving a space between the 
case and the mould three or four times the thickness of 
the intended pipe, and in short lengths, which are 
afterwards drawn through holes in pieces of steel, 
similar to the process of wire drawing, till the pipe is 
reduced to the required thickness." 

There are several other methods of making the 
pipes, but this is considered the best. 

BULLETS AND SHOT. 

Lead is used for making bullets and shot. For the 
purpose of making shot, it is fused with a small quan- 
tity of arsenic, to make it more brittle. When the 
temperature is such as to admit of a card being plunged 
into it without burning it, it is poured into a kind of 
colander sieve, pierced at the bottom with many holes, 
and containing lighted charcoal. The colander is usu- 
ally placed at the top of a high tower, and the lead as it 
passes through the holes, takes on a globular form, 
and in falling from the top to the bottom of the tower, 
becomes cool. It is received in a reservoir filled with 
water, which breaks the force of the fall. 



118 REDUCTION OF METALS. 

Lead ore is used to glaze pottery. The ore is pul- 
verized and mixed with water, and the vessels to be 
glazed are, after the first baking, dipped in this mix- 
ture. When the vessels are again exposed to a strong 
heat, a superficial covering is formed over their whole 
surface. 

Lead in a state of oxide enters into the composition 
of glass, crystals, and enamels. 

WHITE LEAD. 

This is an oxide of lead, and is used by painters. 
It is not altered by a mixture with oil, and forms by its 
whiteness a basis which is suitable for a variety of 
colours. 

The white lead is made by taking ingots or pigs of 
lead, and, after melting them, casting them into thin 
plates four or five inches wide, and two feet long. 
These are rolled into a spiral form, leaving, however, 
a space of half an inch between each layer. They are 
then placed in earthen pots, and vinegar is added. 
The pots are disposed by the side of each other, and 
are covered with horse manure. Several strata are 
thus formed in rooms prepared for the purpose. At 
the expiration of a month they are taken out, and the 
white oxide that is formed by the action of the vinegar 
upon the lead is separated, ground, and dried. The 
drying must be done in the shade, for the sun impairs 
the colour. It is best dried by means of steam. 

COPPER. 

Copper is a hard, elastic, reddish metal, of a styp- 



REDUCTION OF METALS. 119 

tic and nauseous taste. When pure, it may be reduced 
into thin plates or drawn into fine wire. 

Copper is most generally found mineralized by sul- 
phur, and in this state it is called, from its colour, yel- 
low ore. Sulphurous ores are most commonly wrought. 
The pure metal is obtained in the following manner : 
the ore is first assorted, pounded, and washed. It is 
then roasted and fused in a blast furnace. It is fused 
a second, and if necessary, a third time, to drive off all 
the sulphur. When pure, it is poured into a broad 
vessel, water is thrown on its surface, which cools it, 
and enables it to be removed in plates or layers. In 
this state it is subjected to the hammer and beaten. 
Copper mixes with arsenic, bismuth, antimony, zinc, 
tin, silver, he. It unites readily with tin, and on this 
the art of tiqning depends. Vessels that are to be 
tinned are made perfectly clean, by means of weak 
acid. They are dipped into a fusion of tin, and the 
coating they acquire is made smooth by pressure with 
a cloth. 

Copper fused with tin forms bronze, or bell-metal. 
This alloy is made sonorous, brittle, and white, in pro- 
portion to the tin which enters into the combination. 
In making bell-metal the proportions of tin vary from 
one third to one fourth the weight of copper. When 
it is intended for casting, a less proportion of tin is 
used, as in this case solidity is one of the first requi- 
sites. Copper alloyed with silver makes it more fusi- 
ble, and these two metals are combined to form solders. 

Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. The zinc 
that enters into this composition is about twenty parts 



120 REDUCTION OF METALS. 

to a hundred. Brass is more valuable in the arts than 
copper, as it is more easily fused and hammered, and is 
of a bright colour. This alloy may be cut with a saw 
and turned in a lathe with more ease than iron. 

Copper is much used in the arts. It is used for 
covering the roofs of buildings, for sheathing the bot- 
toms of ships, for boilers, and for making kitchen 
utensils. 

VERDIGRIS. 

This is the acetate of copper, or copper with acetic 
acid. It is made by pouring vinegar on sheets of cop- 
per. The vinegar corrodes the copper, and the pro- 
duce is verdigris. Care should be taken that food 
prepared in copper vessels should not contain acetic 
acid; for verdigris, which would result from the action 
of the acid on the copper, when taken internally, is an 
acrid poison. ■ , 

TIN. 

Tin is a metal of a white colour, flexible, and soft. 
It is the lightest of all the common metals. It is found 
in a state of ore, either white or coloured. The co- 
loured tin usually contains some iron or cobalt. In 
working the tin ores, the mineral is assorted, pulveri- 
zed, and washed. It is then fused in a blast furnace, 
and the metal is permitted to run off, by means of a 
groove situated in the bottom of the furnace. It is re- 
ceived into a basin, and is cast in moulds of copper or 
iron. 



REDUCTION OF METALS. 121 



TUTTY. 

The white oxide of tin is called tutty, and is used 
to polish hard substances. It will render glass opaque, 
which converts it into an enamel. 

The effect of nitric acid upon tin varies according 
to its purity. 

Sulphuric acid dissolves it by the assistance of heat. 
Nitric acid dissolves it immediately without the as- 
sistance of heat. Muriatic acid acts upon it, whether 
cold or hot. 

Tin is sometimes combined with other metals, as for 
instance arsenic, but not in sufficient proportions to 
prove prejudicial to health, or if acted upon by acids, 
to produce any dangerous effects. The combination 
of tin with sulphur, forms the aurum musivum, or mo- 
saic gold. This preparation, which consists of an 
amalgam of eight ounces of tin, and eight of mercury, 
six ounces of sulphur, and four of sal ammoniac, is 
used to give a beautiful colour to bronze, and to in- 
crease the effect of the electrical machine, by being 
rubbed on the cushions ; an amalgam of tin is used to 
silver looking-glasses. 

GOLD. 

Gold is the most ductile, tenacious, and unchange- 
able of all metals. It is found in nature in combina- 
tion with other metals, most frequently with silver or 
copper. 

Baron de Born reduced the method of working gold 
ore to the following process. 
12 



122 REDUCTION OF METALS. 

1. The mineral is pounded, divided, and sifted. 

2. It is properly washed. 

3. It is mixed with the muriate of soda, water, and 
mercury, and agitation is used to facilitate an amalga- 
mation. 

4. The mercury is expressed from the amalgam, by 
placing it in a leather bag, and subjecting it to a strong 
pressure. 

5. The expressed mercury is exposed to distillation. 

6. When mixed with silver it is purified by a pro- 
cess called cupellation. This consists in melting the 
ore with lead in a cupel, which is a vessel made of 
bone ashes or wood ashes. The lead passes into a 
state of oxidizement. After it cools, it is flattened and 
cut into small pieces, which are subjected to the action 
of nitric acid, which dissolves the silver and leaves 
the gold in a porous mass. 

GOLD BEATING. 

This consists in forging and pressing gold by means 
of rollers, to a state of extreme tenuity. Before the 
gold is subjected to this process, it has to pass through 
that of annealing, which consists in beating the gold 
when heated, and allowing it to cool in a very gradual 
manner. This diminishes its brittleness, and makes 
it more ductile. 

GILDING. 

Copper is gilded by an amalgam of gold and mer- 
cury. The surface of the copper is freed from its 
oxide, the amalgam is rubbed on and exposed to heat, 



REDUCTION OF METALS. 



123 



which drives off the mercury, and leaves the copper 
covered with a coat of gold. 

Steel is gilded by covering it with gold leaf, and ap- 
plying heat to it, until it acquires a blue colour. It is 
also gilded by the application of a solution of gold in 
nitro muriatic acid and alcohol to its surface. 

Gold unites with most of the metals ; arsenic, bis- 
muth, and antimony, render it brittle. It unites with 
tin and lead, and these deprive it of its ductility. 

Iron forms a very hard alloy with gold, which is 
employed in the arts to great advantage. 

Copper renders it more fusible, and communicates 
to it a reddish colour. An alloy of gold and silver, 
form what is called by goldsmiths, green gold. 

Gold is used for a variety of purposes, and is entitled 
to the first rank among the metals. 

SILVER. 

Silver is a metal of a white colour, very ductile and 
tenacious. It is found in the earth in five different 
states. 

1. In its original or native state, or in other words, 
in a state of purity. 

2. The vitreous silver, or silver mineralized by sul- 
phur. 

3. Red silver ore, or silver mineralized by sulphur 
and arsenic. 

4. White antimonial silver, or silver and antimony 
mineralized by sulphur. 

5. The corneous ore of silver, or muriate of silver. 
The processes by which silver is worked, vary ac- 
cording to its nature. 



124 REDUCTION OF METALS. 

In Mexico the mineral is pounded, washed, and 
worked, and then mixed with mercury in a copper 
boiler filled with water, which is kept in a state of 
ebullition, — the whole is agitated by machinery. The 
amalgam which is formed, is expressed in a skin and 
heated, to drive off the mercury. The silver alone 
remains. When silver ore is mineralized with sulphur 
or arsenic, it is pounded, washed, and worked, and 
fused with lead, which unites with the silver. From 
the lead it is separated by cnpellation. 

One of the most important uses of silver is in coin- 
age. Its metallic brilliancy, its hardness, and its un- 
changeableness, render it valuable. 

ALLOY. 

Silver is generally alloyed with copper, which in- 
creases its hardness without injuring its colour. Cop- 
per vessels and utensils are frequently plated with sil- 
ver, which gives them a brilliant appearance, and pro- 
tects them from the influence of the atmosphere. 

This is done either by heating the copper to be 
coated, and rubbing on portions of silver leaf with a 
steel burnisher, till they adhere, or by plating solid 
ingots of copper, and afterwards working them into 
the desired form. Silver is so ductile, that it can be 
drawn out with the copper, so that the latter will not 
be shown. 

Iron is plated by first covering it with a thin plate 
of tin, and then applying the silver leaf. The whole 
is subjected to heat sufficient to melt the tin. An 
alloy is formed between the tin and silver. 



REDUCTION OF METALS. 125 



QUESTIONS. 

In what state is iron generally found ? 

What are its properties ? 

What are those places called where it is found? 

How is the ore worked ? 

What changes take place during the process of smelting ? 

What is pig iron ? 

Is this pure ? 

Is it easily fused ? 

How is pig iron converted into malleable iron ? 

How is iron wire made ? 

How is steel made ? 

What is meant by blistered steel ? 

What is the character of cast steel ? 

How is it made ? 

What is meant by tempering steel ? 

How is this done ? 

What is an alloy ? 

With what metals does steel combine ? 

What is the most useful alloy of iron ? 

How are iron plates coated with tin? 

What are the properties of lead? 

How is it obtained in a pure state ? 

With what metals is lead usually found combined ? 

What is the process by which it is deprived of its silver ? 

How are sheets of lead prepared? 

How are lead pipes made ? 

How are shot made ? 

Is lead ore used for glazing ? 

How is this done ? 

What is white lead ? 

How is it made ? 

What are the properties of copper ? 

In combination with what metals is it usually found? 

How is the pure metal obtained ? 

With what metal does it unite ? 

How are vessels tinned ? 



126 REDUCTION OF METALS, 

What is bronze made of? 

What bell metal ? 

What are the properties of tin and bell metal? 

With what metal does it unite to form solders ? 

What is brass ? 

What is the proportion of zinc used? 

Is brass valuable in the arts ? 

What use is made of copper ? 

What is verdigris ? 

What are the properties of tin ? 

How is it found ? 

How is it worked ? 

What is tutty ? 

Do the acids act upon tin ? 

What does the combination of tin with sulphuric acid form ? 

How is this used? 

What are the properties of gold ? 

How is it found ? 

What is the pi'ocess of working ? 
In what does gold beating consist ? 
How is copper gilded ? 

How is steel gilded ? 

Does gold unite with other metals ? 

What is green gold ? 

What are the properties of silver ? 

How is it generally found ? 

How is it obtained pure ? 

What is the best use to which silver is applied ? 

With what metals is silver generally alloyed ? 

How are vessels plated with silver ? 

How is iron plated ? 



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